liiiiir 

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Book. 



INDIA AND THE HINDOOS 



A POPULAR VIEW 



THE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, 
LITERATURE AND RELIGION OF THAT ANCIENT PEOPLE ; 



WITH AN ACCOUNT OF 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AMONG THEM 



BY 



F. De "W. ward, 

LATE MISSIONARY AT MADRAS, AND MEMBER OF THE "AMERICAN 
ORIENTAL SOCIETY." 




NEW YORK: 

BAKER AND SCRIBN^ER, 

1850. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 

BAKER AND SCRIBNER, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District ol New York. 



C. W. BENEDICT, 

Stereotype r, 

aOl William st., N. Y 



y 



V 



TO 

EDWARD ROBINSON, D.D., 

PRESIDENT; 

WITH THE 

OTHER OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 

OF THE 

AMJIMIIOA]^ ©lailiJEg'S'AILi i©©!!!!!?!", 
THIS VOLUME 

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THEIR FELLOW LABORER IN THE 
CATTSE OF EASTERN LEARNING, 

THE AUTHOR. 



A FEW WORDS TO THE READER. 

Of those who take this volume in hand, a few may recog- 
nize in the author an acquaintance and friend, while to others 
he is a stranger, whose name even they have never before 
heard. To this latter and more numerous class, a few intro- 
ductory statements may not be inappropriate. 

In the Fall of 1836 I sailed from Boston, a missionary to 
the natives of Southern India. My shipmates were the Kev. 
Messrs. Cherry, Cope, Crane, Muzzy, Tracy, Dr. Steele, and 
our wives. Two of these. Dr. Steele and Mrs. Muzzy, lie 
buried on the continent, and Mrs. Cherry at Jaffna, Ceylon. 
Our destination was the ancient and far-famed city of Madura,* 
where and in the neighboring villages Christian operations had 
been successfully commenced, under the direction of the Rev. 
Messrs. Todd, Eckard, Hall, Lawrence, Poor, and Dwight, the 
first and last three of whom were in the field when we arrived. 
After residing for about six years in that city, I removed to 
Madras, and was associated with Rev. Messrs. Winslow and 
Hutchings, and Mr. Hunt. Here I labored in preachino-, 
superintending schools, and writing for the press, until the 
state of my health required a return to my native land, from 
■which I had been absent ten years. During my residence in 
* Pronounced Madjura. 



VI PREFACE. 

India, I travelled mucli over tlie southern districts — went to 
Ceylon twice, and acquainted myself with the condition of that 
long-established and successful mission — journeyed southward 
and witnessed the wonderful effects of evangelizing efforts in 
Tinnevelly, with its whole villages of converts to Christianity 
— spent several days at Tanjore, under the roof of the aged and 
venerable Kohloff, a pupil and successor of the celebrated 
Swartz — travelled westward to Bangalore, where, during several 
months of ill health, I shared the hospitality of the Rev. Mr. 
Crisp, (whose necessary return to England cannot be too much 
regretted, so well qualified was he for the post he then held, of 
instructor to a large class of native young men, who were pre- 
paring for the ministry,) — passed on to Mysore, also the centre 
of interesting missions under the London and Wcsleyan Socie- 
ties. Hundreds of miles have I journeyed through native 
towns and villages, alone or accompanied by esteemed fellow- 
laborers, preaching the Gospel, superintending schools, circu- 
lating Bibles, distributing tracts, arguing with Brahmins, min- 
gling with the thousands who were congregated at annual 
festivals, and warning them of their sin and danger — entreat- 
ing the common people, who "heard us gladly," to behold the 
" Lamb of God," and using all means at our command to 
secure for our faith an interested attention from the multitude 
of idolaters. Hours were spent in exchanging thoughts with 
missionaries of all societies and denominations upon the condi- 
tion of the Hindoos, and the most hopeful way of inducing 
them to embrace the better faith of Christ. While there, I 
took notes upon what I saw and heard ; and since my return I 
have been permitted to plead for the Hindoos in most of the 
cities of New York, in many of the churches of Connecticut, 



PREFACE. Vll 

in company with my worthy friend, the Rev. Mr. Cowles, and 
to a limited extent at the West. The reception I everywhere 
met with was of the most gratifying character, and I would 
express thus publicly my thanks to the many pastors who have 
allowed me to address their congregations upon this subject of 
deep and enduring interest — the wants of India, and the way 
to relieve them. 

Providence at length indicated that I should assume a pas- 
toral charge, which I have done, over an endeared people, but 
with no abatement of my interest in the cause of India mis- 
sions. 

During my journeyings over the country, it was often sug- 
gested to me, that when I had no further use for my manu- 
scripts, in oral lectures and addresses, I should put them in a 
form for the press. Hence, this book, which is designed as a 
plain, colloquial statement of facts, the results of reading and 
conversation, confirmed and illustrated by personal observation 
and reflection. The aim of the work is to bring before the 
reader's mind India as it was and as it is, in a secular as well 
as a religious aspect. 

Reader, allow me, in conclusion, to entreat you to think 
more about the Hindoos, especially in respect to their religious 
state and prospects. Thinking will lead to feeling ; feeling to 
prayer ; and prayer to effort. If this book awaken in any 
mind a deeper interest in the Hindoos, or lead in any instance 
to increased exertion for their social happiness or spiritual im- 
provement, my aim will be secured and my prayer answered. 

F. De W. ward. 

Geneseoj (Livingston Co., IV.Y.,) Sept., 1850. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 

Page 
Relative position — Boundaries — Geographical divisions — Names of 
opposite Sea Coasts — Mountains described — Droogs — Rivers — 
Tanks — Wells — Modes of drawing water — Cataracts — Courtallum 
— Nullahs — Hot Springs — Lakes — Salt Marshes — Face of the 
Country — Seasons — Climate — Extremes of heat and cold — Means 
of avoiding the constant and oppressive warmth — Longevity — Dis- 
eases — Features of Constitution needful in a foreigner who would 
live long in India — Rapidity of death's doings illustrated by facts 
— Comparative healthfulness of different seasons — Cities and large 
Towns named and described ------ 1 

CHAPTER II. 

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 

Introductory remarks — Elephants — Rajah of Mysore's State Car- 
riage — Rhinoceros — Wild Boar — Camel — ^Dromedary — Bear (an- 
ecdote of an Indian Hunter and Mountain Bear) — Deer, various 
species — Goat — Sheep — Buffalo — Ox — Cow — Brahminee Bull — 
Ganjal — Arnee — Yak — Horse — Ass — Mule — Dziggetai — Monkey, 
various tribes (anecdote of a Monkey and flock of Crows) — Bat — 
Porcupine — Sloth — Armadillo — Mangoose — Loris — Squirrel — 
Chipmuck — Rats — Ratel — Rabbits — Martin — Civet — Ichneumon 
— Tiger — Lion — Panther — Leopard — Cheetah (mode of use by 
hunters) — Cat — Jackal — Hyena — Lynx — Thibet Dog — Native 
Dog — Lizzard — Gecko — Scorpion — Centipede — Tarantula— 



X CONTENTS. 

Page 

Cobra-de-Capella — Tic Polonga — Mountain Snake — Crocodile — 
Anaconda — Tortoise — Frog — Insects (scene presented when enter- 
ing a long-closed house) — White Ant (a choice dish) — Ant Hills 
as seen by Bp. Heber — Birds and Fishes, a large variety of each 
Class — Botany, including Vegetable, Fruit and Forest Trees, 
Flowers — Minerals, &c. -------27 

CHAPTER III. 

HISTORICAL SURVEY. 

What is known of Ancient India — Invasions by Sesostris, Semira- 
inis, Darius and Alexander — Invasion by Mahmoud of Guznee — 
Somnaut captured — Its venerated Idol and Temple Gate — Success- 
ors of Mahmoud — Invasions by the Portuguese — Dutch — East 
India Company — Black Hole of Calcutta — Governors- General — 
Relation of India to England — Remark of Dr. DufF — Measures 
pursued by the English — Opinions and Feelings of the Hindoos — 
An Historic Law respecting India — Characteristics of the several 
periods of Hindoo History — An Eloquent Extract - - §i 

CHAPTER IV. 

INHABITANTS OF INDIA CLASSIFIED. 

Population — Native Hindoos — Mohamedans (Annual Festivities) — 
East Indians — European Residents, of several grades — Arabs — 
Parsees — Chinese and Jews --..._ §3 

CHAPTER V. 

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 

The three Presidencies — Governor- General — Metropolitan Bishop — 
Officers, &c. in the four Departments, Revenue, Judicial, Mili- 
tary, and Ecclesiastical— General Remarks . - - . 91 

CHAPTER VI. 

PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE HINDOOS. 

Figure and Physiognomy — Bodily Structure and Strength — Pedes- 
trian Agility and Endurance — Emblematical Marks upon the 



CONTENTS. XI 

Page 
Forehead, Neck, &c., — Dress of the Men, of the Women, of the 
Children — Ornaments ; their kind, value, and dangers - - 100 

CHAPTER VII. 

COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 

Hindoos a polite people — Visit from a Native — Salaam — Namaska- 
riim — Sashamgam — Modes of addressing superiors — Epistles — 
Materials of Writing — Diiferent Styles of Address, to an Inferior, 
an Equal, and a Superior — Remark by Abbe Du Bois - - 108 

CHAPTER VIII. 

A HINDOO AT HOME. 

Native Dwelling described — Furniture — Its apartments, especially 
the Room of Anger — The Hindoo returning home — Preparations 
for a meal — Rice and Curry — Mode of Eating — Sleeping-room — 
Different modes pertaining to different classes — Price of dwelling 
— Evil Eye, and other superstitious fears — Flower Gardens — 
Market — Times of eating — Topics of conversation - - - 119 

CHAPTER IX. 

HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 

Author's arrival at Madras — Reflections — Catamaran — Massuli- 
boat — War Steamer — Merchantman — Dhony — Basket-boat — 
Budgerow ---------- 127 

CHAPTER X. 

HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 

Travelling propensity of the Hindoos — Primitive mode of carrying 
a child — Cart and Bullocks — Canopied cart — Palanquin — Tonjon 
— Miscellaneous vehicles in City and Town - - - - 140 

CHAPTER XL 

HINDOO LITERATURE. 

Languages of India — Antiquity of the Sanscrit — The Vedas — Shas- 
tras — Pooranas — Ramayanum, Analysis of, and Quotation from 



XU CONTENTS. 

Pagk 
the Poem — Remark by Dr. Duff — Institutes of Menu, and other 
Works on Hindoo Jurisprudence — Ethics — Extracts from the Cu- 
ral and Ovviya — Miscellaneous Proverbs — Puncha tantrakathy — 
Moothory — Nannery — Nalladiyar — Hindoo Poetry - - 155 



CHAPTER XII. 

SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 

The Hindoos not a barbarous People — Arithmetic — Geometry — Al- 
gebra — Trigonometry — Astronomy — Geography — Chronology — 
Natural Philosophy — Chemistry — Mineralogy — Botany — Geology 
— Doctors — Medical Institutions at Calcutta — Polytechnic Institu- 
tions — Lawyers — Present state of Learning in the land - - 181 

CHAPTER XIII. 

ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OF INDIA. 

Introductory Remark — Agriculture — Modes of Cultivation — Native 
Plow, Harrow and Threshing Machines — Cultivation of Rice, 
Wheat, Barley, Indigo, Opium. Sugar, and Tobacco — Fabrics — ^Na- 
tive Loom — Glass — Potter — Carpenter — Blacksmith — Goldsmith 
— Shoemaker — Brassfounder — Barber — Confectioner — Florist — 
Shopman — Washer-man — Oilman — Milkman — Fisherman — Dis- 
tiller — Palanquin Bearer — Difficulty of introducing Modern Im- 
plements — Public Buildings — Descriptions of Temples at Ele- 
phanta, Syringham, and Madura — Droogs — Reflections upon be- 
holding these Ruins .----.-_ 195 

CHAPTER XIV. 

POPULAR. AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 

Hindoos not fond of work — Card-playing — Backgammon — Domi- 
noes — Checkers — Chess — Quoits — Marbles — Cock-iighting — 
Dancing — Story-telling ; Tale of the three deaf men — Theatrical 
Exhibitions — Hunting — Gymnastics and Jugglery, illustrated by 
descriptions of wondrous feats— Remarks . . - - 2O6 



CONTENTS. Xm 



CHAPTER XV. 

MUSIC OF THE HINDOOS. 

Remarks on the universal prevalence of Music — Antiquity of Hin- 
doo Song — Remarkable statements by Sir William Jones — "No 
accounting for tastes" — Hindoo Gamut — Extract from Abbe Du 
Bois — Names of musical instruments — Style illustrated by Stan- 
zas from the Poem of Arumuga Tambiran, sung at his baptism 
— ^Tviro verses written in English by a Convert at Calcutta — Au- 
thors of " Spiritual Songs" in Southern India . . - 219 

CHAPTER XVI. 

PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 

Two circumstances that impart importance to the Birth of a Hindoo 
— ^Hindoo Names, virhence derived, and the Ceremony of giving 
them — Hindoo Marriages — Courtship — Desirable Qualities in a 
Wife — Kooleen Brahmins — Death — Exclamations of a Mother 
over a Dead Child — Strange Comforters — Nuisances on the Gan- 
ges — Burning of Bodies — Singular Custom in the Northern Dis- 
tricts — Parsee mode -with, their Dead — Mohamedan Cemeteries — 
Also Roman Catholic — Graves of Foreigners — Superiority of the 
Gospel over Brahminism in the Dying Hour . - - 228 

CHAPTER XVII. 

WOMAN IN INDIA. 

Importance of Female Influence — Facts illustrating the relative posi- 
sition of women in India : (1) Grief at their birth ; (2) Subjection 
exacted ; (3) Not to mention her husband's name ; (4) Not to 
speak of her husband's excellencies ; (5) Not to be seen walking 
with him ; (6) Not to take food with him ; (7) Is not inquired after 
by guests ; and (8) Is not taught even the rudiments of knowledge 
— Remarks by a Hindoo writer — Life and self-immolation of Hol- 
lee Lutchema — Suppression of Sutteeism — Lord William Bentinck 
—Appeal - S40 



XIV CONTENTS. 

Page 
CHAPTER XVIII. 

HINDOO CASTE. 

Definition of Caste — Four-fold division — Origin and duties of Brah- 
mins, Kshatiras, Veishas, and Soodras — Pariars — Six facts illus- 
trating the evil influence of Caste upon its adherents — Its anti- 
social and anti-benevolent character — ^A barrier to the progress of 
Christian truth — A convert at Calcutta — Apology by Abbe Du 
Bois — Early Views of Swartz, Bishop Heber, &c. — Action of 
Bishop Wilson and Modem Missionaries — Caste doomed, and 
what is now expected of all converts to Christianity - - 256 

CHAPTER XIX. 

RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 

Design of the Chapter — Brahm — Brahma — Vishnu — Siva — Ganesa 
— Supramunyan — Doorga — Kalee — Latchmi— Sarasvati — Mun- 
muthan — Indru — Soor)Ti — Kartikeya — Parvuna — Vuroona — 
Yumu — Weakness of them all — Immorality — Character of the 
worshippers — What can elevate India — Appeal to the Reader 267 

CHAPTER XX. 

HINDOOISM IN PRACTICE. 

Facts indicating the Religious Tendency of the Hindoos — Car Draw- 
ing — Sailing — Hook Swinging — Passing through the Fire — Other 
and like Observances — Quotation from Bishop Heber respecting 
the Moral Character of the Hindoos ..... 278 

CHAPTER XXI. 

MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 

Harmony between these means — First Agency, Preaching ; to Stated 
Congregations, in the Highways, at the Mission-House and at 
Tayats, with Trials of Body, Mind and Heart — Second Agency, 
Bible and Tract Distribution — Its Necessity and Success — Third 
Agency, Education^ (1) Day Charity Schools, (2) Boarding 
Schools, (3) Literary Seminaries, (4) Theological Academies, 
and (5) English Schools— Concluding Remarks - - - 288 



CONTENTS. XV 



CHAPTER XXII. 

LIGHTS AND SHADES OF MISSIONS IN INDIA. 

Quotations from the Abbe Du Bois, with Remarks in Opposition — 
Considerations favorable to the Cause of Christian Truth in India 
— (1) Change in Governmental Policy; (2) Disconnection of Gov- 
ernment from Hindoo Festivals and Superstitious Ceremonies ; (3) 
Improved Character of Foreign Residents ; (4) Posture of the Na- 
tive Mind towards the Religion of Christ ; (5) The existence in 
India of a Christian Church, with many thousand Members ; (6) 
The array of Organized Means for Propagating the Truth ; and (7) 
The Practical Interest of all Christendom in the Prospects of the 
Hindoos — Certain Offsets to these Encouragements — Summing up 
of the whole subject - - - - - -- - 306 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 

The interest felt by Christendom in India— St. Thomas— Roman 
Catholic Missions— Society for Propagating the Gospel — Danish 
Missionary Society — English Baptist Missionary Society — London 
Missionary Society — Scottish Missionary Society — Church Mis- 
sionary Society — Free Church of Scotland Missions — American 
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions — American Baptist 
Missionary Society — Presbyterian Foreign Missionary Society — 
Free Will Baptist Missions — Evangelical Lutheran Missions — 
Concluding Remarks ..-.---- 323 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

GLOSSARY ; 

Or, Vocabulary of Words and Terms in common use by writers on 
India, arranged in alphabetical order . - - - - 330 



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CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 

Relative position — Boundaries — Geographical divisions — Names of 
opposite Sea Coasts — Mountains described — Droogs — Rivers — TanliS 
— Wells — Modes of dravsring water — Cataracts — Courtallum — 
Nullahs — Hot Springs — Lakes — Salt Marshes — Face of the country 
— Seasons — Climate — Extremes of heat and cold — Means of 
avoiding the constant and oppressive warmth — Longevity — 
Diseases — Features of Constitution needful in a Foreigner who 
would live long in India — Rapidity of death's doings illustrated by 
facts — Comparative healthfulness of different seasons — Cities and 
large Towns named and described. 

The vast continent of Asia terminates on the south 
in three peninsulas, the central and most important of 
w^hioh is India. Bounded on three sides by water, and 
on the fourth disjoined from the high table-land of 
Thibet by the lofty Himalayas, nineteen hundred 
miles in length and in breadth fifteen hundred, with 
its extreme points in 8° and 35' North Latitude, and 
in 67° and 92' East Longitude, this extensive 
country embraces within its ample limits forty 
districts, viz : in Northern India, Cashmere, Sirmoor, 
G-urwal, Kumaoon and Nepaul ; — in India Proper^ 
1 



2 INDIA. 

Lahore or the Punjaub, Mooltan, Delhi, Oude, Sind, 
Ajneer or Rajpootana, Agra, Kuch, Gruzerat, Malwa, 
Allahabad, Bahar and Bengal ; — in the Deccan, 
Khandesh, Gondwana, Berar, Orissa, Aurungabad, 
Beder, Hyderabad, the Northern Circars, and Beja- 
poor ; and in Southern India, Dooab, Ceded Dis- 
tricts, Northern Carnatic, Kanara, Mysore, Barama- 
hal, Salem, Central Carnatic, Malabar, Koorg, Coim- 
batoor, Southern Carnatic and Travancore. 

The Sea Coast on the west side from Bombay to 
Cape Comorin is called by Europeans the Malabar, 
and that on the East side the Coromandel. 

The Mountains of the Peninsula are few in number, 
but lofty and majestic. The Himalayas (or " Seats 
of Snow") which form its northern boundary constitute 
one of the sublimest features in the structure of our 
globe, the highest peak as yet ascertained, rising 
27,000 feet above the level of the sea, and lofty as the 
Grreen Mountains of Vermont if piled upon the Chim- 
borazo of South America, This cloud-capped summit 
is esteemed the chosen residence of Siva, who, in re- 
tiring from Ceylon, threw up the HimaJayahs as his 
place of retreat. Dewtas or spirits, are supposed to 
inhabit the most inaccessible glens, and by feigned 
sounds to lure the unfortunate traveller on to his ruin. 
In those lofty ranges the extremes of heat and cold 
are excessive, the former melting the snow and laying 
the mountains bare, while the latter is so intense as to 
split and detach huge masses of rock, which roll into 
the valleys and deep chasms below with loud and 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 3 

terrific reverberations. These mountains and elevated 
plains, rich in the precious metals, furnished, in the 
time of Herodotus and Ctesias, that quantity of na- 
tive gold and auriferous sand, w^hich gave rise to 
the fabled ants, industriously amassing stores of 
this precious ore, and fountains from which it bub- 
bled up from a seemingly exhaustless depth. The 
inhabitants of the villages skirting the sides are poor, 
illiterate yet simple minded — the chiefs, however, being 
jealous of foreign visitors. This stupendous chain of 
hills is indented with "passes," through which ti-avel- 
lers and, at times, armies journey to and from Nepaul 
on the south side and Thibet on the north, for com- 
merce and on predatory excursions. Encircling the 
base is a plain about twenty miles broad (called 
" Tarryani") upon which the waters from above pour 
down with such profusion that the river beds, unable 
to contain the torrent, overflow and convert the 
ground into a species of swamp, which, acted upon 
by the rays of a tropical sun, throws up a rank 
vegetation, long grass and coarse shrubs, dense and 
almost impenetrable. In these gloomy regions the 
elephant, the tiger and rhinoceros, prowl unmolested, 
while the few human beings who can resist the pesti- 
lential vapors, present a meagre, dwarfish and sickly 
aspect. "Waiving any special mention of the Kumaoon, 
Sewalick, and Vindhya Mountains, all of which lie north 
of the Dekkan, our attention may be directed to a 
double range of hills, lining the opposite coasts of the 
southern peninsula and called the Eastern and Western 



4 INDIA. 

Ghats. The latter commences near the river Tuptee, 
in 20° North Latitude, and extends to Cape Coraorin, 
while the former, beginning near the river Kistna, in 
16° North Latitude, stretches to the Cauvery River on 
the south. From the Grulf of Cambay to the Bay of 
Bengal is a tract of high country, which, with the two 
ranges before named, form a triangle enclosing a table 
land elevated three thousand and more feet above the 
level of the sea. The mountain scenery of this region, 
though destitute of those features which invest the 
Himalayas with so awful and sublime a character, is 
beautiful and picturesque. A traveller leaving Madras, 
after traversing a country of prairie smoothness for 
a distance of a hundred miles, finds himself at the 
foot of the Western G-hats, where a steep ascent of 
two thousand feet brings him upon the level surface 
when he moves forward with ease until he reach the 
base of the Neilgherries, to attain the summit of which 
he has six thousand feet more to rise. Here the air is 
clear, the climate cool and healthy, the fields fertile, 
well cultivated, and free from jungle, while, as a 
farther compensation for his labor, here he meets the 
violet, primrose, butter-cup, wild thyme, fern, dog- 
rose, woodbine, mosses and litchen, with various 
vegetables and fruits, which he has not before seen 
since leaving his fatherland. The native of that 
delightful region will tell you that he dwells in a 
favored spot — in a country whose origin was celestial. 
" The Grod Rama," he says, " being in pursuit of his 
enemy, Ravena, who had forcibly carried off the Divine 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. O 

Groddess Sita, sped through the vaulted heavens, hav- 
ing his sword drawn, ready to deal the death-blow of 
revenge. In the forgetfulness of his direful wrath, lo ! 
by an incautious wave of his mighty weapon, he 
struck the moon with the point thereof, and severed 
from the face of that beautiful orb a chain of verdant 
mountains, which immediately fell to the earth in the 
province of Coimbatoor and united the Eastern and 
Western G-hats. Hence the name Chandgherry, (or 
Mountains of the Moon,) which was subsequently 
changed by Rama to Neilgherri, (or Blue Mountains.) 
because he would not be reminded of his awkward 
mistake." In proof of his statement, the Coimbatori 
will point out the place on the lunar orb from which 
the hills fell off! 

Gotacamund, a village about six thousand five 
hundred feet above the level of the sea, and two hun- 
dred miles S. West from Madras, is much resorted to 
by European invalids from all parts of the Peninsula, 
as also from the adjoining islands, because of its clear 
air and invigorating climate. Excepting these table 
lands and cloud-piercing heights, Southern India is 
very level, presenting immense areas of barren sand 
and dense jungle, with occasional rocks rising from the 
plain to the height of 100 to 200 feet, like icebergs 
in the northern seas. Upon the summit of these rocky 
acclivities the traveller often finds a fort, (called a 
Droog) which has done good service in years long past, 
when life and property were exposed to the invader's 
power. One of the most remarkable of these is the 



6 



INDIA, 



fortress of Dowlatabad, the Capital of Arungabad 
This fort is a mass of granite, standing more than a 
mile and a half from the hills, and rising to an eleva- 
tion of five hundred feet. Another, and the most 
remarkable in India, is Sevendoorg, twenty miles north- 
west from Bangalore, This has a base of about eight 
miles in circumference and a height of about half a 
mile. In some cases a temple has been erected on the 
solitary summit which, with a pagoda at the base, 
secures a large share of reverential attention from 
Bramins and other devotees. 

The largest Rivers of India are the Indus, Sutlij, 
Jumna, G-anges, Brahmapootra, Nerbudda, Tuptee, 
Muhanuddee, Grodavery, Toombudra, Pennar, Palar 
and Cavery — which run a united distance of about ten 
thousand miles : — most of them rising in the lofty 
Himalayas, and falling into the Bay of Bengal or Ara- 
bian sea. Of these the Indus is noted for its length 
and variety of appearance, flowing a distance of 1700 
miles, and forming the boundary line between the Pe- 
ninsula and Afghanistan, The Ganges is far famed 
for the spiritual efficacy of its waters, especially those 
parts of the stream which happen to run from South to 
North, contrary to the general direction. The Brah- 
mapootra rises in Thibet, near the mouth of the Indus, 
sweeps through Assam with a curve westward, uniting 
with the Ganges just above Calcutta, The Godavery 
is sometimes called the Second Ganges, because of its 
sacred origin and purifying efficacy. The Krishna, 
from the resemblance in its color to that of Vishna 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 7 

in his ninth incarnation, is also an object of reli- 
gious worship. The name of Punjaub (or land of 
streams) which the natives apply to a small portion of 
the Northern Hindostan is descriptive of at least one 
half of the peninsula. The valley of the Ganges is the 
most extensive and luxuriant on the face of the globe, 
forming a tract of 400,000 square miles, the greater 
part of which is susceptible of cultivation of some kind, 
and much is extremely fertile. In the southern dis- 
trict there are but few perennial streams. During a 
large part of the year the bed of the river presents the 
appearance of an extended plain of arid sand, with a 
mere brook running through its midst, but so soon as 
the rainy season sets in, the mountains pouring down 
the flood that has fallen upon them, the desert is con- 
verted into a stream, or more frequently a raging tor- 
rent, majestic to behold, refreshing to the neighboring 
vegetation but annoying to the traveller who must wait 
till it has subsided, ere he can safely attempt to cross. 
As these rivers are an uncertain reliance for agricultu- 
ral purposes the country is supplied with tanks or large 
artificial lakes, measuring from two to twenty miles in 
circumference, encircled with an embankment of clay 
and clods, into which the water is allowed to flow du- 
ring the rainy season, and is there retained for future 
use. Upon each side, gates are built, by the raising 
of which the neighboring fields are irrigated and made 
fruitful. One of these is essential to every extensive 
farm, as without it man and beast could not subsist, 
and the fields would lie barren and useless. There 



b INDIA. 

are, it is true, large wells to be frequently met with, 
but these would be quite insufficient to supply water 
for cattle, and field-irrigation. The mode of obtaining 
water from the wells or tanks (when a large quantity 
is needed) is by means of a sweep, or Peootah. One 
man climbs an upright post and placing himself on a 
transverse beam, treads backward and forward, thus 
sinking and raising an iron bucket, which another 
standing below guides as it passes up and down and 
empties when full into the channel prepared for it. 
This labor is performed with great rapidity, and is ac- 
companied by a pleasant song, almost the first sound 
the foreigner hears after landing, and the last he for- 
gets. 

In respect to Waterfalls India is unequalled. This 
might be expected from the loftiness and rugged char- 
acter of the Himalayas and other mountain ranges. 
Two instances must suffice by way of illustration and 
proof. The river Shirawati or Carawooty rises in the 
western G-hats, and falls into the Arabian Sea not far 
from Bombay. The bed of the stream near the Cata- 
ract is one fourth of a mile in direct breadth, but the 
edge of the fall is elliptical, with a sweep of about half 
a mile. This body of water rushes, at first, for about 
three hundred feet at an angle of 45° in a sheet of 
white foam, and is then precipitated to the depth of 
eight hundred and fifty more into a black abyss, with a 
noise like thunder. It has, therefore, a depth of eleven 
hundred and fifty feet, quadrupling Niagara in the 
depth to which it sends its foaming waters. Anothej 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 9 

fall of less grandeur though greater utility is to be met 
with at Courtallum about 100 miles north from Cape 
Comorin. A horse-shoe indentation is made into the 
east side of the Ghats, near their southern extremity, 
about two miles in breadth and one in depth, within 
which the village is situated, with its native huts, for- 
eign dwellings and consecrated temples. During the 
prevalence of the western monsoon the clouds are so 
driven as to cause almost hourly showers of light rain 
to fall within this enclosure, giving to the air a de- 
lightful and invigorating coolness, especially when con- 
trasted with the heat which prevails but a few miles 
inland. Upon the summit of the mountain the water 
collects in large quantities and is precipitated over 
seven lofty ledges before it reaches the basin below. 
At this place Hindu •superstition has erected several 
temples of large dimensions and great sanctity, and a 
native, who would not hesitate to take a false oath 
elsewhere, would tremble to do so on this sacred spot. 
This is a favorite resort for foreigners, who will 
bear patiently the greatest domestic inconvenience, if 
they can but inhale its refreshing air and bathe in its 
health-giving flood. So soon, however, as the western 
rains cease, a rank vegetation springs up, dangerous 
to the life of all but native inhabitants. I spent sev- 
eral weeks in this delightful Sanatarium and have 
full knowledge of its worth and beauties, as well as 
the society of the agreeable and good who are wont 
to assemble in that " happy valley." 

The traveller through India is ever meetinsr with 



10 INDIA. 

small streams, from a few feet to several yards in 
breadth, called nullahs. These are either arms pro- 
jecting from neighboring rivers, or- streams from the 
adjacent hills, and, though not imposing in appear- 
ance, are useful in feeding tanks and watering the 
herds. 

Hot Springs are very numerous in the mountains, 
and river beds being much frequented for medicinal 
purposes, and with religious reverence. An English 
officer speaks of one he met with near the source of 
the Jumna, the water of which was sufficiently warm 
to boil rice, and the deposition of which led hiin to 
suppose that it was occasioned by the decomposition 
of pyrites. In some of those Greysers the temperature 
is 170 and even 194° Fah., and at the elevation of ten 
thousand feet above the sea. Others have been found 
in the middle of the river Grodavery, in the valley of the 
Nerbudda, in the G-ondwana district, in Bundelcund, 
in a village near Pooree, in Setacuno on the Granges, 
and in a village near the city of Delhi. In these 
springs the thermometer, plunged in, ranges from 100° 
to 140°, and a strong smell is diffiised throughout the 
surrounding neighborhood. 

Lakes are but few in number, and those of limited 
dimensions. Just north of the Bay of Cambay there 
is an immense region of marshy land called the "run," 
where the waters, accumulating during the monsoon, 
evaporate when the rain ceases to fall, leaving a saline 
incrustation, which the natives collect, cleanse, and 
use for culinary purposes. Another salt lake was 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 11 

found high, in the Himalayas at an elevation of six- 
teen thousand feet. 

As to the face of the country characterizing the 
four geographical divisions before named, Northern 
India is very mountainous, but the regions between 
the hills susceptible of high cultivation, India Proper 
is divided between the vast desert of Rajpootana, the 
extensive valleys of the Granges and Indus, the salt 
marshes of Kutoh, and the jungly regions about the 
mouth of the sacred stream, the Dekkan has the two- 
fold features of level and sandy plains from the sea to 
the foot of the G-hats, and a table land upon their 
summit, while the same features belong to the Southern 
region, where it terminates in a dense jungle and re- 
mains without cultivation and well nigh uninhabited 
several miles north from the Cape, 

Of Seasons there are but two in India, the dry and 
rainy, produced by the periodical winds called 7non- 
soons. During the former, vegetation labors under a 
deadly languor, and the sunlight penetrates with diffi- 
culty the dense vapors with which the atmosphere is 
loaded. Then follow the rains, a fall of two or more 
weeks of which without interruption being not at all 
uncommon, during which inundations from the burst- 
ing of tanks and the overflowing of streams frequently 
level to the earth the mud hut of the distressed native, 
and drown his flocks beneath their swelling waves. 
In the year 1822, the Brahmapootra overflowed its 
banks, by which calamity thirty-seven thousand per- 
sons were drowned, besides sheep and cattle without 



12 GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY, 

number. If the rain come not at the ordinary time, 
or if not in sufficient quantities, disastrous effects fol- 
low during the entire year. In 1793 so great was the 
scarcity occasioned by the drought, that parents sold 
their children for a few pounds of rice. Distress of 
such severity is uncommon, but inconvenience, desti- 
tution and suffering from a like cause is far from un- 
usual in those equatorial regions. To talk of an Indian 
summer would be to include the whole year ; to speak 
of its autumn would be absurd, for its trees are never 
denuded of leaves ; spring would be equally unmean- 
ing, when vegetation blossoms in every month, and 
winter is there unknown. 

The Climate of India, as distinguished from that 
of the western world, is characterized by warmth, 
continual, and often extreme. A few statistics will 
illustrate the point. During the month of January 
the mean temperature is — 

in Calcutta . . . 69° o' Fah. 
" Bombay ... 77° " 
" Madras . . . 78° 15' " 
While in the State of New York it is 25°, making a 
difference during the coldest part of the year of 49°. 
Again during the month of May the mean tempera- 
ture is — 

in Calcutta . . . 88° 6' Fah. 

" Bombay ... 85° " 

" Madras ... 89° ^ " 

while in New York State it is 70 in July — making the 

difference in the warmest weather of 17°. The mean 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 13 

temperature throughout the year is 30° higher in In- 
dia than in the State of New Yorlf. The average cold- 
est month in India (the mountainous region excepted) 
is warmer by 6° than the average warmest month in 
this State. Over the largest part of the peninsula the 
thermometer never sinks below 60° while it often 
rises to 95 or 100°. In the Northern Circars it has 
stood at 100° at midnight and 110° at 8 o'clock A. M. 
On the 15th of May, 1849, the thermometer stood in 
the City of Madras as follows : 

at 10 o'clock . . . 156° Fah. 

" 12 " ... 169 " 

" 12 " . . 181 " 

This was, of course, under the direct action of the 
solar rays. In the shade, it was above 100°. Such is 
the intensity of the heat, that birds sometimes drop 
down dead in the streets and squares of Calcutta. 
Travellers who are compelled to pass the day in tents, 
often creep beneath the table or cot to shield them- 
selves from the heat that strikes through the canvass. 
A modern author upon these equatorial regions, says, 
with much liveliness and truth : "It is all well for 
any one to sit by his fireside in Old England, and im- 
agine and talk about the " sunny east" as superemi- 
nently splendid, and to be coveted ; but if he ever have 
the opportunity of being conveyed in a palky, (palan- 
quin) about 2, P. M., on any day in April, from Fort 
St, William to Grovernment-house and back he will 
never after repine, though doomed forever to remain 
in that climate which Prince Cariciolli described to be 



14 INDIA. 

in Britain, "where the sun is never seen ; and where 
there is no ripe fruit, but roasted apples." The cli- 
mate of India is little understood by Englishmen 
(Americans) " at home," and an instance of which 
appeared in a letter I read, in which the fair writer 
said '• she could picture her correspondent reading 
under the shade of a palm-tree ;" whereas the only 
endurable place was a room with all the blinds 
closed, and a punka waving over head. The reader 
may like to know what means are in use to shield the 
foreigner from the distressing effects of this constant 
and fatally-tending heat. Dwellings are located in 
places most open to the sea, are large and airy, with 
lofty ceilings, terraced roof for promenading, Vene- 
tian blinds, instead of window-sash and glass, bamboo 
mats for the floor, (carpets being too warm, and at- 
tractive to snakes, scorpions and smaller vermin,) and 
the whole painted white or green. Between the rising 
and setting of the sun, a foreigner should not leave his 
house without the shelter of a carriage, a palanquin, 
or a thick umbrella. Large fans, called punkahs, 
made of the fragrant Cuskus grass, arc suspended 
from the ceiling, and kept in motion by a servant sta- 
tioned on the verandah or in an adjoining room. Mats 
formed from the same material, are hung outside of 
the door and window, and kept saturated with water. 
These adjuncts relieve the heat of the parlor, the din- 
ing-room, office and church. Hand fans are often 
used at meals, by a native, standing behind the chair. 
Bathing once a day, is universally practiced, two or 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 15 

more rooms for this purpose being attached to each 
dwelling. It has become an admitted fact, after 
many and fatal trials, that spirituous liquors, and 
even wine and beer, so far from being needful to an 
Indian resident, are injurious and to be avoided. In 
the higher parts of the Peninsula, as at Delhi, in Lat. 
28° the winter's cold is sometimes 3° or 4° below the 
freezing point, and the tanks are frozen over. The 
previous statements have respect to the country gen- 
erally, those parts removed from the chilling influ- 
ence of the snow-clad Himmalayahs. 

With a due regard to these precautions, and a calm, 
contented disposition, a foreigner may live many 
years in that " land of the sun" while such is the 
liability to transgress in one or more of these impor- 
tant respects, that human life is held by a brittle 
thread. Extreme simplicity of diet, and great tran- 
quility of mind, may procure for some of the native 
fakeers (or religious devotees) a lengthened life ; but 
taken as an average, this is a climate in which the 
force of vitality receives a quick developement, and is 
subjected to speedy exhaustion. The oldest native 
I met in India, was a preacher in Tanjore — a pupil of 
Swartz, and ordained by that illustrious Missionary. 
He had passed his ninetieth year ; was very decrepid, 
yet in preaching, his voice was clear, and sufficiently 
loud to be heard by a large audience, and his manner 
earnest and effective. But a few months after the occa- 
sion of my being at that interesting station, he, and the 
Rev. Mr. KohlofF, (pupils, both, of Swartz) ascended to 



16 INDIA. 

the presence of that Saviour, whom for more than sev- 
enty years they had preached with boldness and success. 
India has been called " Scotland's church-yard," the 
tombs of those deceased islanders meeting the eye of 
the traveller at every stage of his journey. 

The DISEASES most prevalent in India are cholera, 
fever, hepatic derangements, dysentery, and various 
forms of inflammation. Among the natives, scrofula, 
leprosy, elephantiasis, and opthalmia, are very common. 
Cholera had its origin in that land, and there remains 
the same mysterious and fell messenger now that it 
was forty years ago. Elephantiasis (where one leg 
or both assume the shape and almost the size of that 
of an elephant) and leprosy (where large white spots 
appear upon the face, hands, arms, and where the 
toes and fingers drop off in gradual succession) are 
very frequent with natives, and at times with Euro- 
peans. 

Here I will repeat the remark of an eminent sur- 
geon upon the features of constitution desirable in 
one who expects to live long and enjoy health in that 
land. "A vivid color, animated countenance, firm 
step and voice, clean tongue and inoffensive breath, 
with what is called the white of the eyes clear, or 
without the slightest yellow tinge, are in general very 
sufficient proofs of good digestion and well performed 
visceral secretions ; and these, with the other requi- 
sites, may, with propriety entitle their possessor to a 
passport to the plains of India. On the other hand, 
young men who seem sluggish, sallow, with somewhat 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY, 17 

bloated countenances, whose movements are languid, 
and the white of whose eyes has a yellowish or suf- 
fused appearance, ought to meet with a decided rejec- 
tion ; for in them there certainly lurks the seed of 
future disease, which will not be slow to show itself if 
ever they are exposed to ardent heat in a tropical 
country." 

If there be those of the human family to whom it 
may be with special appropriateness said, " Be ye 
ready, for at such an hour as ye think not the Son of 
man cometh" — it is to the foreigners resident in 
India. 

" This hour, perhaps, onr friend is well, 
The next we hear his passing bell." 

Let a few facts suffice by way of illustration : 
A civilian of Bengal whose duty had led him to a 
remote district, was returning home X)n account of an 
attack of fever, having written to his wife, acquaint- 
ing her of his intention. Resting, during the day, at 
the Bungalow of a village, he learned that a European 
had just breathed his last in an adjoining room. 
Anxious to secure decent interrnent for the body, he 
struggled with his illness, and attended the remains 
of his fellow sufferer to the grave, reading the burial 
service at the sepulture. Exhausted by this sad and 
painful duty, he got into his palanquin, but had not 
proceeded far before he was overtaken by the pangs 
of death ; a paroxysm of fever seized him, and he died 
on the road. The bearers set down the palanquin and 
fled into the wood, leaving their deceased master 



18 INDIA. 

alone, for nothing but the strongest attachment can 
induce a Hindoo to touch, or even to continue with the 
dead body of a person who belongs not td his caste. 
In the meantime, the wife of the deceased gentleman, 
alarmed by the tidings of his illness, had hastened to 
meet him, and was made acquainted with her loss by 
the frightful spectacle that met her eyes. She could 
gain no assistance from her own bearers, whose caste 
kept them aloof, and finding it impossible to induce 
them to touch the body, she sent them to a neighbor- 
ing village to find those that would aid her, while she 
took upon herself the melancholy task of watching the 
fast decaying remains. She soon found that her ut- 
most strength would be insufficient to repel the daring 
attacks of insects, ravenous birds, and savage animals, 
which were gathering around, waiting for an advan- 
tageous moment for attack, and, in the energy of de- 
spair, she tore away the earth with her hands and 
buried her dead husband ! Such is the rapidity with 
which death does its work in that Eastern clime, such 
the heartlessness produced by the false system of re- 
ligion there dominant, and such the trials to which 
females are subjected to in that strange land — trials 
under which they often sink beyond recovery, but 
sometimes display an energy and heroism which 
awaken in the beholders emotions of equal wonder 
and admiration. 

- When leaving Madras for a journey to the South, I 
parted with Mrs. Winslow, in the possession of usual 
health. Reaching Trichinopoly we found a letter 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 



19 



informing us of her death on the day after we left. 
We had not long resided in Madura, when a letter 
from Ceylon brought the intelligence that Mr, and Mrs. 
Perry followed each other, at an interval of but two 
days, to their heavenly home. My colleague, the Rev. 
Mr. Dwight, attended divine service on Sabbath after- 
noon, and was a corpse next morning. Mrs. Cherry, 
and Mrs. North were called away during the same 
week. When Heber wrote those touching lines — 

" Death rides on every passing breeze, 
And lurks in every flower ; 
Each season has its ovs^n disease, 
Its peril every hour," 

little did that amiable prelate imagine that he would 
himself illustrate their meaning, and confirm their 
truth. I have recited them when standing in the bath 
room at Trichinopoly, which he entered, in the posses- 
sion of perfect health but to be brought out a lifeless 
corpse. 

The comparative healthfulness of the different 
seasons is indicated by the following table, con- 
taining the observations made during seven years. 
Of 1000 deaths of Europeans, the proportions stood 
thus : 



92^ 


occurred 


in 


the 


month of January, 


67i 








" February, 


6oh 








" March, 


69h 








" April, 


63§ 








" May, 


54h 








" June, 



20 INDIA. 

70| occurred in the month of July, 
90i " " August, 

98i " " September, 

1041 " " October, 

116^ " " November, 

106 " " December. 

It may seem extraordinary that the cooler season of 
India is the most prejudicial to health. I give the 
reason in the language of another : "xVccustoraed to 
a constant and profuse determination of moisture to 
the skin, the cold season, causing a complete revul- 
sion, occasions more unhealthiness than any other, and 
a dry, irritable state of the surface, which is indescrib- 
ably unpleasant. To the old Indian it is peculiarly 
distressing." "I can bear the chilling blasts of Cale- 
donia," said a Scotchman, "but this cold, I know not 
ivhat to do with it^ 

A descriptive view of the leading cities and towns 
of India, will conclude this geographical survey of 
the Peninsula. 

LOCALITY AND CHARACTERISTICS. 

Calcutta, situated on the Hoogly, (a branch of the 
Ganges) one hundred miles from the Sea, in latitude 
22° 30' North, and little more than half a century 
ago a petty village of mud huts, is now the " city of 
palaces," the " metropolis of the East," the residence 
of the G-overnor-G-eneral, Metropolitan, with other 
high officials, civil, military and ecclesiastioal, of the 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 21 

East India Company, and contains an estimated pop- 
ulation of 550,000. 

Madras, a large and fortified town on the eastern 
coast in lat. 13° 5' North, and the capital of the South- 
ern provinces was obtained by purchase from the 
reigning prince in the year 1693, and now numbers 
about 450,000 inhabitants. 

Bombay, the third principal English town in India, 
is situated on an island of the same name, at about 
200 yards from the western coast, in lat. 18° 56' 
North. Ceded by the Portuguese in 1661 it has be- 
come eminent for its excellent harbor, superior ship- 
wrights, and extensive commerce, and comprises, of 
Hindoos, Parsees, Mohamedans, Portuguese, Jews, 
and Armenians not far from 200,000. 

Benares, the " Jerusalem" of India, is located on 
the northern bank of the Granges, in lat. 25° 30', 
about 460 miles northeast from Calcutta. The In- 
dian legends have it, that this place was originally 
constructed of gold, which, because of the wickedness 
of the people, has degenerated into mud and thatch! 
It is esteemed by religious Hindoos as "the most Holy 
City" — "the Lotus of the world, not founded on com- 
mon earth, but on the point of Siva's trident, a place 
so sacred that even a beaf-eater, if he die there, (hav- 
ing been charitable to the Brahmins) is sure of salva- 
tionP The resort of pilgrims the country over, and 
a mart for very extensive commerce it contains a pop- 
ulation of Hindoos, Mohammedans, Turks, Persians 
and Armenians to the number of 700,000. 



2^ INDIA. 

Delhi, the ancient capital of the Mohammedan em- 
pire in India, lies upon the river Jumna, in lat. 28° 
40', and 900 miles N. E. from Calcutta. Ruins of 
splendid palaces, lofty gateways, and noble mansions, 
covering an area of tw^enty miles, attest its former 
grandeur. The Badshahi Mahal, built by the Empe- 
ror Shah Jehan, and still the residence of the royal 
family, retains its form and beauty — the boastful in- 
scription surmounting the State presence-chamber, 
^^ If there be a paradise on earth, it is this, it is this,^' 
remaining legible as when first engraved. With a 
population, in the time of Aurungzebe, of not loss than 
two millions, it has diminished, in these later years, 
to about 250,000 

Agra, at one time the capital of the Moghul em- 
pire, and one of the most splendid cities of India, 
stands on the river Jumna, in lat. 27°, and about fifty 
miles south from Delhi. The Taj Mahal, an edifice 
erected by Shah Jehan, is considered the most perfect 
specimen of oriental architecture in existence. Its 
present importance is derived from its being the resi- 
dence of the Lieut. Grovernor of the north-western 
provinces of the East India Company's dominions. 

Ahmenabad, formerly a city of great opulence and 
commerce, lies on the river Subrmuttee, in lat. 23°, 
821 miles north from Bombay, in the G-uzerat district, 
and contains an estimated population of 100,000. 

Ahmednuggur — one of the principal stations of the 
British government in the Deccan, is situated in lat. 



GEOGRAPHCAL SURVEY. 23 

19° 12', with inhabitants to the number of about 
200,000. 

Allahabad, at the confluence of the Jumna and 
G-anges, in lat. 25° 27', is maintained by the Brit- 
ish government, as the chief military depot of the up- 
per provinces. Its position at the junction of two sa- 
cred streams gives to it unusual sanctity, and suicide 
at the spot where the rivers unite is a frequent prac- 
tice. The travelling distance from Benares is about 
75 miles eastward. 

Aurungabad, the favorite residence of Aurungzebe 
when viceroy of the Deccan, is situated in lat, 19° 
54', and about 150 miles east from Bombay. 

Bangalore is a large fortified town, upon the 
first summit of the Eastern G-hats, and about 200 
miles fom Madras. The healthfulness of the climate 
causes it to be much resorted to by invalids from the 
low country. 

Bejapoor, in lat. 17°, was, in former times, one of 
the largest cities in Asia, the fort measuring eight 
miles round the outside. The principal object of 
interest now remaining, is the Mausoleum of Moham- 
med Shah, a plain square building surmounted by a 
dome of 350 feet in circumference, and visible four- 
teen miles distant. 

Calicut, on the Western coast, in lat. 11° 15', is 
celebrated as being the landing place, and first settle- 
ment of the Portuguese in 1498. 

Cuddalore, a town on the Eastern coast, 12 miles 
South from Pondicherry, derives historical import- 



24 INDIA. 

ance from its being the locality of the third English 
factory established in the country. 

Dindigul a populous village, about 40 miles north 
from the city of Madura, is the seat of one of the 
Missionary Stations under the direction of the Amer- 
ican Board of Foreign Missions. 

Goa, situated upon a small island on the Eastern 
coast, in lat. 15° 30', and once the most splendid city 
in India, and for many years capital of the Portuguese 
dominions in the East, retains but a shadow of its for- 
mer greatness. The city, with a territory of 40 miles 
in length and 20 in breadth, still belongs to the crown 
of Portugal. 

Hyderabad, standing on the south side of tho 
Moosan, in lat. 17° is the capital of a Mussulman gov- 
ernment, the principal resort of the Mohammedan, 
families of the Deccan, and contains a population of 
about 200,000. 

Juggernaut, on the Bengal coast, in lat. 19° 49', is 
one of the most celebrated places of Hindoo pilgrim- 
age in India, and multitudes annually resort thither 
to be present at the bathing and car festivals. 

Kuttack is a large, well-built town, in lac. 20° 27', 
containing, of native inhabitants, not far from 40,000. 

Loodiana and Ferozepoor arc important stations of 
the British territories, on the north-western frontier, 
both in lat. 30, and the centre of Missionary estab- 
lishments under the Presbyterian Church of America. 

Madura, (pronounced Madjura) the former capital 
of a Hindoo kingdom is situated in lat. 9° 5o\ on 



GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 



m 



the south side of the river Vygaroo, and contains some 
of the most extraordinary specimens of Hindoo archi- 
tecture now extant ; among which is the temple of 
Tiroomul-Naik, measuring 312 feet in length, and 
covered with descriptive sculptures. Travelling dis- 
tance south from Madras, 292 miles. It is known to 
the people of this country as the centre of a success- 
ful Missionary Station ; having connected with it, 
Dindigul, Teramungulum, Tirapovanum, Sivaguriga, 
and Maloor. 

Moorshedabad, in lat. 24, was the capital of Ben- 
gal until superseded by Calcutta, and contains a 
present population of 160,000. 

Nellore, a populous town, about 100 miles north 
from Madras, is the seat of the Am. Baptist Mission. 

Seringapatam, memorable in the wars of Hyder 
and Tippoo, Cornwallis and Harris, is situated in lat. 
12, and, from being one of great populousness and im- 
portance, has been almost abandoned, on account of 
its remarkable unhealthiness. 

Tinnevelly^ a region just north from Cape Comorin, 
is agreeably known as the centre of a most success- 
ful Missionary establishment of the English Episco- 
palians. 

Trichinopoly, a large and populous town on the 
Cauvery River, was much noted in the wars between 
the English and the French, having in its centre a 
rock 300 feet high, on which are a pagoda and other 
buildings, and is at present one of the principal military 



26 INDIA. 

stations of the British government. Situated in lat. 
10° 30'; it is 207 miles south from Madras. 

Tanjore, near to Trichinopoly, was, at ona time, 
the chief seat of learning in Southern India, and is 
still memorable as the residence of the Missionary 
Swartz. 

Tranquebar, just east from Tanjore was settled by 
the Danes in the year 1616, and sold to the English 
about four years since. 

Pondicherry, on the coast, about 90 miles south 
from Madras is a well-built city, belonging to the 
French, and was once the most splendid European 
settlement in India. 

The reader will do the author injustice by suppos- 
ing that the statements now made respecting the ge- 
ography of India, have had for their object the impart- 
ing of information never before met with. The design 
has been the rather the bringing to his recollection par- 
tially forgotten truths, or effaced impressions, that 
thus the way may be prepared for a more interested 
perusal of the pages which are to follow. India has 
now been entered — its mountains, rivers, plains, and 
cities have been hastily surveyed — the way is thus 
cleared for a nearer view of its productions, history, 
and national manners and customs. 



CHAPTE R II. 

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 

Introductory remarks — Elephants — Rajah of Mysore's State Carriage — 
Rhinoceros — Wild Boar — Camel — Dromedary — Bear (anecdote of 
an Indian Hunter and Mountain Bear) — Deer, various species — Goat — 
Sheep — Buffalo — Ox — Cow — Brahminee Bull — Ganjal — Arnee — Yak 
— Horse — Ass — Mule — ^Dziggetai — Monkey, various tribes (anecdote 
of a Monkey and flock of Crovps) — Bat — Porcupine — Sloth — Armadil- 
lo — Mangoose — Loris — Squirrel — Chipmuck — Rats — Ratel — Rabbits 
Martin — Civet — Ichneumon — Tiger — Lion — Panther — Leopard — > 
Cheetah (mode of use by hunters) — Cat — Jackal — Hyena — Lynx- 
Thibet Dog — Native Dog — Lizzard — Gecko — Scorpion — Centipede — 
Tarantula — Cobra-de-Capella — Tic Polonga — Mountain Snake — Croc- 
odile — Anaconda — ^Tortoise — Frog — Insects (scene presented when en- 
tering a long-closed house) — White Ant (a choice dish) — Ant Hills as 
seen by Bp. Heber. Birds and Fishes, a large variety of each Class — 
Botany, including Vegetable, Fruit and Forest Trees, Flowers — Min- 
erals, &c. 

India abounds with illustrations of zoological, bo- 
tanical, and mineralogical science. Almost touch- 
ing the equator on the south, and on the north, 
losing itself in snowy peaks of unmeasured height ; 
presenting vast wastes of arid and barren sand inter- 
sected with large tracts of jungle and forest, where 
the foot of man has seldom trod ; with a climate that 
passes from the extreme of tropical heat to arctic cold, 



28 INDIA. 

the peninsula is an ' epitome of the world,' and its 
natural productions answer in variety and value to 
this diversity of climate and soil. 

Beginning with animated nature, the Elephant 
first claims our attention. This large and noble ani- 
mal abounds throughout the moist forests of South- 
ern Bengal, a portion of the western Ghats and the 
base of the Himalaya Mountains. Vast droves ten- 
ant the forests of Ceylon, where they are captured for 
their massive trunks of valued ivory, and for trans- 
portation to the continent, there to become the auxil- 
iary of armies, the pride of princes, and the servant of 
merchants. When at Bangalore, I counted seventy 
elephants of various sizes and age, attached to the pal- 
ace of the Rajah, several of which were trained to 
draw the royal chariot. In the temples of the land, 
may be seen from one to ten of these animals, ready 
for use in imparting eclat to religious processions and 
marriage festivities. We are told that at Vizier All's 
wedding, in the year 1796, there was a grand proces- 
sion of twelve hundred elephants ; of which a hundred 
had howdahs, magnificently adorned with silver trap- 
pings ; while that upon the animal which the Nabob 
rode was made of massive gold, richly set with pre- 
cious stones. The elephant has been much used by 
Europeans and native princes, in hunting the tiger, 
but the sport is attended with great danger, and is re- 
pulsive to this naturally mild and timid animal, 
though in the contest it is usually the victor — receiv- 
ing its enemy on its tusks, tossing it into the air, and 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 29 

standing ready to stamp its ponderous foot upon it so 
soon as it reaches the ground. 

The Rhinoceros exceeds the elephant in clumsiness 
of figure, and is not much inferior in size and weight. 
The leading feature of interest in its physical struc- 
ture, is the horn upon its nose, which projects, not 
unfrequently, thirty inches upward. So long as the 
animal is quiet, this appendage lies loose between the 
nostrils ; but when excited, the muscular tension is 
so great that it becomes immovably fixed, and can be 
darted into a tree to the depth of several inches. 
From the earliest times, this horn has been regarded 
as an antidote against poison. Goblets made from 
it were much in use among the Hindoo princes, be- 
cause, when poisonous liquids were poured into them, 
the noxious qualities were, it was thought, certain of 
betrayal, by a brisk effervescence. In some of the 
northern districts, attempts have been made to render 
this animal available for carrying travellers and bur- 
dens, but with little success. Bishop Heber mentions 
meeting with one which was so tame as to allow a 
howdah and driver upon its back. The rhinoceros 
lives in Bengal, and the lower ranges of the Hima- 
layahs ; feeding on" coarse grass and other vegetable 
substances, especially those containing much succulent 
matter ; seeking amidst mud and water protection 
from the scorching heat ; disposed to be at peace with 
the tiger and its other neighbors, but when provoked, 
becoming a furious and deadly foe. A few, only, 
have been brought to the western continent, the ex- 



30 INDIA. 

pense of transportation being great, its appetite vora- 
cious, and hunger throws it into a paroxysm of rage. 

The Wild Boar still roams the jungles of India, 
and to hunt it is one of the field sports to which for- 
eigners are enthusiastically attached ; though the ar- 
dor has somewhat abated during later years. 

Camels are found in large droves throughout Gruze- 
rat, Patna, and Mooltan ; and, like the elephant, are 
made serviceable to the merchant, the traveller, and 
the warrior. The East India Company maintain a 
corps of Dromedaries, mounted by two men each, and 
armed with musketoons and swivels. 

Two species of Bear are common in India, of 
which the kind inhabiting the G-hats is hardly exceed- 
ed in ferocity of temper by the tiger or hyena ; and 
the second, or Ursine, which makes its appearance in 
the forests of Oude, Orissa, the Carnatic and Coro- 
mandel, is far more mild and harmless. A northern 
traveller gives us an account of an escape from the 
fatal embrace of the former species, which indicates 
much forethought and ingenuity on the part of his 
native attendant. I present it in the words of the 
writer. "Upon gaining the summit of a hill which 
overhung a precipice, a bear started from a recess in 
a neighboring covert, and advanced, evidently with 
sinister intentions, towards us. I was about to fire 
when one of my guides motioned me to desist, giving 
me to understand that he would attack the enemy 
unarmed. Almost upon the extreme edge of the pre- 
cipice, stood a tall tree with vertical branches, very 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 31 

tough and elastic. The hill-man approached the bear, 
and thus withdrew its attention from me, toward him- 
self, when he adroitly sprang upon the tree, as nim- 
bly followed by the exasperated beast. Having reached 
the upper branches, the man slipped a strong cord 
over the top of the limb upon which he stood, at the 
same time dropping the reverse end upon the ground. 
This was instantly seized by another native, who, 
pulling with all his strength, drew the point of the 
bough downward until the branch projected nearly 
in a horizontal line from the stem. This being 
done, the mountaineer crept cautiously as near the 
extremity as he safely could, followed as cautious- 
ly by the bear : but so soon as he saw his angry foe 
upon the bent bough he dexterously let himself down 
by a cord to the ground. The bear thus unexpectedly 
deprived of its victim made an effort to retrace its 
steps, when no sooner had it relaxed its grasp of the 
bough for this purpose, than the hill-man suddenly 
cut the cord, which had been securely tied to a tree, 
and the depressed branch instantly gained its origi- 
nal position with an irresistible momentum. The 
suddenness and vigor of the recoil shook the disap- 
pointed and angry creature from its hold, elancing it, 
like the fragment of a rock, into the empty air, from 
whence, uttering a stifled groan, it was hurled over 
the precipice, and falling with a dull crash upon the 
rocks below, became food for beasts and birds of prey." 
Bears of smaller size and milder temper are led about 
the country with trained monkeys and goats, soliciting 



32 INDIA. 

attention by their absurd postures and antic move- 
ments, by which not a little gain comes to the owners 
from the amused and astonished multitude. 

Of the Deer tribe India contains many species. 
The Antelope, which occupies the place of Capricorn 
in the Indian zodiac, and in size and form resembles 
the Arabian gazelle, the well-known emblem of maiden 
beauty, is spread over the entire peninsula, and is re- 
markable for elasticity of bound, symmetry of figure, 
and soft lustre of its full and hazle eye. The Musk 
deer is a nocturnal animal of a solitary disposi- 
tion, dwelling among the elevated ranges of the 
Himalaya Mountains. The perfume for which it is 
hunted is contained in a bag beneath its belly, and is 
removed from the creature when alive, otherwise it is 
taken up by the absorbents, and thus lost to the hun- 
ter, and the flesh throughout rendered unfit for food. 
The Ceylon deer is the smallest of the cervine tribe, 
being about the size of a fox, and furnished with ex- 
quisitely-formed legs, scarcely larger than a lady's fin- 
ger. The Nepaul stag nearly resembles the red deer 
of America. The Rusa or Tamboo deer is antlered, 
strong and brave, and roams free and fearless amid 
the jungles of Bengal and Ceylon. The Spotted Axis 
is similar to the fallow deer, and abounds in Bengal 
and on the banks of the Ganges. The Hog deer is 
found in the Rohilla country and Becoa districts, 
roaming in heavy grass jungles, feeding at night, and 
sleeping during the day. It is easily irritated and fe- 
rocious in defence. The common Roebuck makes its 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OP INDIA. 33 

home among the crags and ravines of the western fron- 
tier. The White Oryx^ a species of the antelope, with 
a bulky body, slender legs and dark mane, is met with 
upon the banks of the Indus. The Chira, another 
species of the antelope, and an inhabitant of the Hi- 
malayas is the unicorn of traditionary existence. 
The Chickara, or four-horned antelope, which inha- 
bits the forests and hilly districts of Bengal and Ba- 
har is small in height, fleet in movement, and timid 
in disposition. The Nyl-ghaw, or blue cow, a dweller 
in the central provinces and base of the Himalayas, is 
large and strong, and considered in past times as royal 
game to be hunted only by princes. The Giraffe is 
occasionally met with in the north-western provinces. 

Among the Goat-tribe, by far the most noted 
and valuable is the species spread throughout Thi- 
bet, and in the valley of Cashmere, from the wool 
of which are made the shawls of world-wide fame. 
The Empress Aurungzebe had one of so delicate tex- 
ture that she could draw it through the ring of her jfin- 
ger. G-oats of a more common kind are numerous 
throughout the country, being kept for their flesh, 
milk and skins. &heep are numerous and their flesh 
much used as an article of food. 

The Indian Buffalo is large and ungainly, with 
long, rough horns, lying back almost upon its shoul- 
ders, its dark slcin, covered with hair short and 
wiry, its eyes dull and unmeaning, its gait slow and 
measured. But for all these disagreeable and re- 
pulsive features there is the compensation of great 
2* 



34 INDIA. 

utility for the plow and heavy draught, while the fe- 
male furnishes milk from which is made a butter much 
used ir culinary preparations. The buffalo is well- 
nigh amphibious, delighting in the long, rank pas- 
ture which springs up in moist and undrained lands, 
and lying for hours submerged almost to the muzzle 
beneath the cooling waters. 

The Indian Ox resembles the American in varieties 
of color and size, but with the exceptions of having a 
bunch above the shoulders, and a dewlap hanging half 
way to the ground. Those used in the artillery corps 
and by travellers are large and strong, moving at the 
rate of three to four miles per hour. 

Cows yield much less milk, and that of an inferior 
quality in the eastern than western continent. Those 
cti English breed are at times to be met with among 
Europeans, but seldom among the natives. The cow, 
as first created of all animals, is held in highest vene- 
ration by pious Hindoos, and to kill it is the last 
of pardonable offences. Several years ago, a king 
of Travancore, in order to atone for his cruelties, 
caused a colossal golden cow to be made, through the 
body of which he passed with profoundest reverence, 
and made it the era from which all his edicts were 
dated. The rock from beneath which the Ganges 
takes its rise is supposed to be a petrified cow, and the 
orifice is called the " cow''s mouth. ''^ 

The Brahminee Bull claims a special notice. 
These creatures are consecrated when calves to th«» 
divinity Siva, whose emblem is usually painted upon 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 35 

their haunches and forehead. They are allowed full 
liberty to go where they please and feed upon what 
they like. One is always to be seen near the bazaar, 
where it unceremoniously appropriates to itself grain, 
grass, hay, or whatever takes its fancy ; the owner 
bearing the depredation with religious patience, be- 
lieving that to inflict upon it a blow would ensure the 
divine displeasure. They are the greatest pests with 
which the country is annoyed, and respect to national 
prejudices alone saves them from the fatal bullet of 
the vexed foreigner. 

India presents many species of Wild Oxen, some of 
which have been domesticated and made useful to the 
agriculturist and traveller. Of these the Ganjal is 
most important, resembling in size and shape the En- 
glish bull. A species called the Arnee inhabits the 
southern base of the Himalayah Mountains, and ex- 
ceeds in size any of the cattle kind yet discovered. 
One shot near Sangree Island weighed 2,000 pounds, 
though pronounced by ship butchers but two years 
old. Some of the native princes keep them, under the 
name of fighting bullocks. 

The Yak roams over the mountainous regions of 
Bootan and Thibet, and is domesticated throughout the 
central parts of the Peninsula. The horse-tails, as 
they are commonly called, used as standards by the 
Persians and Turks, are made of hair (dyed of a fine 
crimson) from the tail of this animal. 

Horses are numerous throughout India, those of 
highest value being brought from Arabia, the Cape of 



36 INDIA, 

Grood Hope and England. The native horse is small, 
ugly and slow, its use being confined almost wholly to 
the aborigines. Ponies imported from Pegu and 
Acheen are in very general use, the former resembling 
in shape, strength and temper the Canadian pony — the 
latter that of our western prairie. The value of a 
first class Arabian or Cape steed varies from two 
hundred dollars to four hundred, though one of suffi- 
cient excellence for family purposes may be purchased 
for one hundred and fifty. A civilian of rank, with a 
family, keeps from three to six horses, the climate re- 
quiring great care in their use. Each animal has a 
groom, who not only attends to it when stabled, but 
who Tuns by its side when the gentleman goes out 
for a ride, and is ready to receive the reins when he 
alights. Horses are not used for drawing conveyances 
except within the city or town limits, long journeys 
being performed in palanquins, or spring carts, drawn 
by oxen. 

In the northern districts the traveller meets with 
the Wild Ass, where it frequents the salt marshes and 
open plains of Cutch and G-uzerat. 

Mules are common, the country over, and are ser- 
viceable in conveying burdens, especially salt and rice ; 
— a useful but abused animal. Far in the north, the 
Dziggetai is met with in large droves. Quick and 
watchful, it takes alarm at the least appearance of 
danger, and, on the approach of the enemy, skims the 
desert, clears the hills, and bids defiance to pursuit. 

Turning to the quadrumanous order of animals, the 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OP INDIA. 37 

Monkey claims our special consideration, "With this 
creature India greatly abounds. In addition to a 
favorable climate and agreeable food, a reason for this 
abundance may be found in the fact that the monkey 
is held in religious esteem. Temples of magni- 
ficent structure and gorgeous decoration have been 
erected in its honor, one of which, when plun- 
dered by the Portugese on the island of Ceylon, 
contained the tooth of an ape, encased in pure gold. 
In such esteem was this relic held by the natives, 
that they offered 700,000 ducats for its ransom. At 
Ahmenabad, the Capital of Gruzerat, there are three 
hospitals for monkeys, where the sick and lame are 
fed and nursed by salaried medical attendants. City, 
town, and village, throng with these mischievous, 
chattering, and amusing specimens of mock humanity. 
When a resident of Madura, I saw them by hundreds, 
fearlessly scaling the lofty pagodas which grace that 
ancient city, perched upon the dwellings of the 
native inhabitants, engaged in earnest and noisy dis- 
cussions, or committing depredations by tearing off 
the tiles, and grinning at the surprised and vexed 
inmates thus unceremoniously exposed to sun and rain ; 
— all this, in part, to satisfy hunger, but the rather 
as it would seem, to gratify an instinctive desire for 
mischief and fun. The following scene was witnessed 
but a short time since, at Tillicherry, and is thus 
stated by the beholder himself " A few yards 
from the house where I was stopping, a thick 
pole, at least thirty feet high, had been fixed into 



63 INDIA. 

the earth, round which was an iron ring, and to 
this was attached a strong chain, of considerable 
length, fastened to a collar round the monkey's mid- 
dle. The ring being loose, easily slid upon the pole 
when he ascended or descended. He was in the habit 
of taking his station upon the top, where he seemed 
perched, as if to enjoy the beauties of the prospect 
around. The crows, which in India are very abun- 
dant and audacious, taking advantage of his elevated 
position, had been in the daily habit of robbing him of 
his food, which was placed every morning and evening 
at the foot of the pole. To this, he had vainly 
expressed his dislike, by chattering and other indica- 
tions of his displeasure equally ineffectual. Finding 
that he was perfectly unheeded, he adopted a plan 
of revenge equally ingenious and successful. One 
morning, when his tormentors had been particularly 
troublesome, he appeared as if seriously indisposed. 
No sooner were his ordinary rations placed at the foot 
of the bamboo, than the crows watching their oppor- 
tunity, descended in great numbers, and began as 
usual to demolish his provisions. The monkey now 
began to slide down the pole by slow degrees, as if the 
efforfc were painful to him, and reaching the ground, 
rolled about for some time in apparently great agony, 
until he found himself close by the vessel containing 
his food, where he lay in a state of seeming insensi- 
bility, waiting a favorable opportunity of perfecting 
his scheme. With one eye but half closed, he sees a 
crow approaching ; it nears him ; it stretches out its 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 39 

neck, when, lo ! it is seized by the wrathful avenger, 
who, after a few preliminary grimaces and chatter- 
ings, deliberately placed the captive between his knees, 
and began to pluck it, with the most humorous grav- 
ity. When he had completely stripped it, except the 
large feathers in the pinions and tail, he flung it into 
the air as high as his strength would permit, and, 
after flapping its wings for a few seconds, it fell on the 
ground with a stunning shock. The other crows, 
which had been fortunate enough to escape a similar 
castigation, now surrounded it and immediately picked 
the poor thing to death. The expression of joy on the 
monkey's countenance was altogether indescribable. 
Never again was he molested by those voracious 
intruders." 

After what I have personally observed of this ani- 
mal, I am prepared to attach full credence to this sin- 
gular incident. My friend, the Rev. Mr Crane, of 
Dindigul, had a large black monkey with a face most 
tastefully decorated with whisker, mustache, and 
like genteel appendage, which, if placed in similar 
circumstances, would fully equal his Tillicherry 
brother. The species most common in India, are the 
Gibbon, or long-armed, the Entellus, or long-tailed, 
the Wanderer, and the Togul. A few specimens of 
the Ourang Outang have been met with in the cen- 
tral regions. \ , 

Bats of various sizes are numerous, and to the. trav- 
eller, in his bungalow, exceedingly annoying. Some 
of them are furnished with wings, which, when out- 



40 INDIA. 

stretched, measure five feet from tip to tip, and are 
very destructive to fruit-trees in Gruzerat and on the 
Coromandel Coast. 

Porcupines extensively inhabit the mountainous 
ranges, and the long quills with which they are fur- 
nished, and which they annually shed, are gathered 
by the natives, and used for beautifying boxes and 
dresses, in the same way as by our American Indians, 
but more perfectly wrought. 

On different occasions I purchased a Sloth and an 
Armadillo, both of which I kept for several weeks, 
observing their habits, which v/ere curious and instruc- 
tive. In Bengal, and along the eastern shore, is found 
the Two4oed Sloth ; and in Bahar there is a variety 
which has a considerable resemblance to the bear, and 
lives on ants. 

The Mang-oose is about the size of a weasel, and is 
the only creature that dare attack the cobra de ca- 
pella. If bitten, it runs into the neighboring wood, 
feeds, it is thought, upon some antidote, and returns 
to the combat. The animal is domesticated, and 
trained to guard the sleeping infant from snakes and 
vermin, while the mother is at work in the field. 

The Bengal loris, or slow lemur, is about the size 
of a small cat, of a pale brown color, and, during 
most of the day, sleeps, or lies without motion, like 
the sloth, of which some consider it but another 
species. 

Among various kinds of Squirrel, the Malabar holds 
a first rank. It measures from fourteen to twenty 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 41 

inches in length, and is furnished with a fine bushy- 
tail, and moves with much ease and gracefulness. 

Chipmucks are abundant, as also various species of 
Rats and Mice. Among the former of which, is the 
Ratel, which is very troublesome in disinterring and 
feeding upon the buried dead. 

Hares, Rabbits, and Martins, find a home in the 
northern districts, while Civets, Badgers, Racoons, and 
Ichneumons hunt the rats, bats, and larger serpents. 

Among the Carnivorous Quadrupeds of India, the 
Tiger holds a distinguished place. This most agile 
and daring of beasts, which forms a prominent fea- 
ture in the zoology of that land, makes its home 
amid the jungles of Bengal, and the mountain ranges 
of the northern and central districts, where it roams 
free and fearless, finding no enemy daring to measure 
strength with it, except, occasionally, the elephant 
and rhinoceros. In the the province of Khandesh one 
thousand and thirty-two of these fierce creatures were 
killed between the years 1825 and 1829, as given in 
official reports. To hunt the tiger, mounted upon 
the lofty elephant, was once a favorite sport with 
native princes and foreign residents ; but its extreme 
danger has led to its general abandonment. The 
bound of the tiger, when springing upon its prey, is 
tremendous, extending, as it is said, to the distance of 
one hundred or more feet. It is from this spring that 
the animal gets his name. He, as it were, " shoots 
himself at his prey ;" and tiger, in the Arminian lan- 
guage, signifies the arrow — ^the name also given to the 



42 INDIA. 

River Tigris, on account of its velocity. In many 
of the Indian languages, the name of tiger is tippoo. 

Lions exist in vast numbers throughout the pro- 
vinces of Saharampoor and Loodianah, some of them 
equalling in size those at the Cape. A maneless 
species is so numerous in G-uzerat, that an English 
officer killed eleven in one month. The Bengal lion 
has the mane magnificently developed, attains a very 
large stature, and displays equal courage with that 
of its African relative. 

Panthers and Leopards tenant the jungly and hilly 
districts of the peninsula, and are hunted for their 
beautiful skins, which are used by religious mendi- 
cants and Government officers. A species of leopard 
called the Cheetah, with limbs long and slender, is 
trained to aid the hunter in his field and jungle sports. 
One of them, after being blinded and chained, is 
placed upon a cart and carried far out into the field, 
and when the hunter sees an antelope or deer, turning 
the head of the Cheetah in that direction, he removes 
the blinds and chains, allowing it to move, as its in- 
stinct suggests, slowly and stealthily towards its vic- 
tim. When approaching sufficiently near, it makes a 
few astounding springs, seizes its prey by the neck, 
and will not relax its hold till the owner entice it 
away by pieces of meat and a draught of fresh blood. 

Other of the feline genus, as the Domestic Cat and 
the Nepaul tiger cat, make their habitation in the 
Peninsula, though to a limited extent. 

Of the Canine tribes inhabiting India, a prominent 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 43 

place belongs to tlie Jackal. The foreigner has not to 
journey far into the interior before becoming acquainted 
with its nocturnal cries, (resembling the scream of a 
woman in deepest distress) arousing him from his slum- 
bers by its unwonted sounds. So soon as night falls 
they commence their predatory excursions to the vil- 
lages, seizing upon fowls and other domestic animals, 
carrying away lifeless carcasses and offal, thus uniting 
the evil habit of the thief with the good offices of a 
scavenger. In some parts of the country the custom 
prevails of bathing the hands in the blood of a slain 
jackal, v/henever one kills or witnesses the death of a 
wild beast. The origin of this strange habit has not 
come to my knowledge. 

The Striped Hyena resides in the caverns of the 
mountains and clefts of rocks or in dens, from which 
it comes forth with more strength and daring than the 
wolf, following the flocks, breaking open sheepcotes at 
night, and committing ravages with an insatiable 
voracity. In some instances the hyena has become 
tame and domestic like the dog. 

The Lynx lives in the northern provinces, and the 
Caracal makes his appearance in Bengal. The 
Ounce is found in all the central part of the Deccan, 
and in Guzerat, The most remarkable of the canine 
animals of India is the Thibet dog, a gigantic kind of 
mastiff, which inhabits the table-lands of the Hima- 
layas. It is used as a watch dog, for which it is well 
adapted by its size, strength and ferocity of temper. 
Another of the canine species frequenting jungly 



44 INDIA. 

and hilly regions, and resembling in many features 
the jackal, hunt in packs, and even will rush upon the 
tiger, tearing him in pieces ere he can strike more 
than two or three down with his fatal paw. 

The domestic or Pariar dog is mean in appearance 
and destitute of all those noble traits which belong to 
his western relative, and, as a consequence, receives 
rough usage from native and foreigner. 

In our viev/ of the animated nature of India, the 
next class to be noticed is that of Reptiles, includ- 
ing various species, from the Crocodile to the harm- 
less Lizard ; — with which last-named creature our il- 
lustrations will begin. " Shaped like unto a crocodile, 
of a sad, green color, and but a little creature, the 
fear of whom presents itself mostly to the eye, for 
they are in no wise hurtful," is a description of the 
lizard, which, though quaint, is correct and gra- 
phic. Measuring from three to six inches in length, 
having feet so shaped as to allow of creeping safely 
and rapidly upon the sides and ceiling of the smoothest 
wall, it feeds upon flies and insects, which it ap- 
proaches with ^ slow and cautious tread, and trans- 
fixes with a sudden thrust of its sharp and forked 
tongue. To look upvrard and see a half dozen of these 
reptiles creeping upon the polished ceiling is not at all 
agreeable to a new comer, while to have one fall upon 
the hand when writing or reading sends a chill through 
the frame not to be coveted. But the alarm is not all 
on one side, for the animal makes such a descent sole- 
ly by a mistake, and were it possible would certainly 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OP INDIA. 45 

apologize for this intrusion, as he rectifies his error in 
the very practical manner of making himself off with 
the greatest possible speed. A few of these harmless 
creatures find their home upon every wall, remaining 
concealed behind a mirror or other suspended frame 
during the day, and coming forth at night to seize 
upon their tiny prey. In some parts of the country 
there is a large green lizard called the Gecko, named 
from its favorite and habitual sound, and in distinction 
from the last mentioned, containing a bag filled with 
poison, with which it can suffuse its victim and pro- 
duce death, unless the part be removed. 

India abounds with Scorpions of various sizes and 
color, from one which may be covered with a dollar 
coin to that which equals a full-sized hand, the former 
usually of a light cast, and the latter dark or jet 
black. An elongated body terminates in a slender 
tail, formed of several joints, the last of which ends 
in a small, conical bag containing the poisonous fluid, 
to which is attached a tubular sting, through which 
it is thrown into the object it seeks to harm. This 
tail is carried above the body, when the animal is 
walking, and is projected beyond the front of the head 
when put to harmful use. The wound is painful 
though seldom destructive, ammonia being the most 
successful curative. The cautious Hindoo will not 
put his hand into or under a jar or box before he as- 
sures himself that he will not encounter this noxious 
reptile. It is currently believed that if encircled with 
fire it will sting itself to death. A celebrated natu- 



46 INDIA. 

ralist speaks of putting a female scorpion with her 
young into a glass case. She soon destroyed all but 
one, which took refuge upon the back of its parent, 
and avenged the death of its brethren by killing the 
old one in its turn. It is a timid creature, flying ra- 
pidly from impending danger, and never using its 
sting except as a means of defence, or to secure food. 

Centipedes are found in similar localities with the 
scorpion, and are at times more than a foot long and 
thick as a man's finger, having two sharp teeth with 
which they inflict wounds painful and dangerous. 

Tarantulas, the largest of the spider kind, are occa- 
sionally met with in unfrequented places, or long un- 
opened rooms. I killed one, the body of which was 
nearly the size of the palm of my hand, of an olive 
brown color, and covered with a soft down. The bite 
is painful, though not fatal. 

Dr. Russel, an eminent scholar in zoology, has de- 
scribed forty-three distinct species of Snakes common 
in India. Among the seven which are poisonous, there 
is one — the Cobra-de-Capella — that is dreaded be- 
yond any object with which our earth is cursed. In 
length from three to six feet, in circumference about 
two inches, its head is small, and covered on the fore- 
part with large smooth scales, just below which is a 
dilatation of the skin which is capable of being raised 
or depressed at the pleasure of the animal. "When irri- 
tated the skin is expanded and elevated like a hood ; 
hence the name of "hooded snake." The animal never 
bites so long as this outer skin is folded, but its erec- 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 47 

tion, with an accompanying hiss, is a signal of ag- 
gression and peril — peril, for let the minutest globule 
of the concentrated poison find its way into the sys- 
tem and death must ensue. Lunar caustic, though 
efficacious as remedial to the bite of the viper, is found 
of little or no avail as a counteraction to the venom of 
the cobra. Jugglers carry them about the country for 
exhibition and reward, keeping them in subjection by 
the power of music. Though very numerous there are 
but few instances on record of death from their attacks, 
such precautions are used to avoid the places where 
they dwell. By the natives they are regarded with 
religious reverence, and the title of " good snake" is 
that by which they are usually designated. 

On the Island of Ceylon a venomous snake called 
the Tic Polonga is occasionally met v/ith. Such is 
the strength of its poison that the first bite will kill a 
fowl in less than a minute. It is naturally indolent, 
and will not attack unless it is irritated. 

The Whip Bnake conceals itself among the foliage 
of trees, darts at cattle grazing below, causing the 
largest ox to die of agony within an hour's time. 

Mountain Snakes, from four to eight feet in length, 
and quite harmless, are carried about the country by 
indigent, low-bred natives for exhibition, with trained 
monkeys and bears. 

The Crocodile of the Ganges is distinguished from 
the Nilotic species by its projecting eyes, and narrow, 
elongated muzzle. Its teeth are many, and disposi- 
tion carnivorous. The habit of throwing infants and 



48 



INDIA. 



small children to these monsters of the sacred stream, 
has long formed a leading feature in the superstitious 
observances of that idolatrous land. Alligators are 
common in the rivers of the north, especially the 
Granges, upon the shores of which they are ever seen 
basking in the rays of the sun. 

Anacondas, twenty to thirty feet in length, infest 
the Delta of the Granges, concealing themselves in 
large trees standing upon the water's edge, and by 
a terrible fling of their massive and powerful bodies 
encircling and crushing whatever comes within their 
fata] reach. 

"We have an account of a Boa Constrictor, killed 
upon the banks of the Ganges but a few years since 
which was found to measure sixty-two feet and some 
inches in length. 

Tortoises measuring four and a half feet from the 
tip of the nose to the tail, and fourteen inches high, 
are to be met with at times in the northern regions. 

Frogs are abundant. Bishop Heber speaks of see- 
ing one which was large as a gosling, and very beau- 
tiful, being green, speckled with black, and almost 
transparent. 

India swarms with Insects, arising chiefly from 
the warmth of the climate, there being no portion of 
the year throughout the largest districts, when the 
cold is sufficient to destroy the minutest animal life. 
Let a house remain closed for a fev/ weeks, and upon 
opening the door and windows, the reader, were he 
here, would observe several things which would startle, 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OP INDIA. 49 

if not terrify him. Turning his eye upward he would 
see two, three, or more lizards (before referred to) seem- 
ingly ready to make a descent upon him. Looking 
downward he would observe the mat covered with in- 
numerable tiny, black ants moving in all directions 
with business-like order and speed. If there be a ta- 
ble in the room he would notice the upright post pro- 
vided with an encircling brass cup, into which water 
or oil may be poured, and thus the food be guarded 
from the attacks of these intruders, and a like pre- 
caution with the bedsteads, bureaus, and safes. He 
would observe tho book-case standing at a little 
remove from the wall, to protect it from the rav- 
ages of the lohite ant, that marvel in natural history. 
Though small and apparently harmless, they are the 
most destructive creatures with which we are ac- 
quainted. Nothing but stone or mortar can resist 
their power of devastation. Moving just beneath the 
surface, mole-like, they enter by myriads a table, box 
of books, chest of clothes, or whatever be left exposed 
to their intrusion, and cease not their work of destruc- 
tion until nothing is left but the bare shell. Boxes 
must be placed upon a stone or some metallic substance 
three to four inches in height — books must be bound in 
Russia leather, or often removed and brushed — beams 
of dwellings must be saturated with tar ; and all to 
guard against one of the tiniest, most insignificant- 
looking, and yet most formidable of the animate crea- 
tion. Let the visitor beware how he lift up the corner 
of the mat lest the sting of a concealed scorpion make 
3 



50 INDIA, 

him repent the incautious act, or a snake erect its 
threatening crest. Let him wait till evening draws 
on, and a light is brought into the room, and if it be 
at the right season of the year, a cloud of winged ants 
will make their entrance, encircling the lamp in a 
countless swarm, some just burning their feet upon 
the glass shade, others more boldly flying right into 
the crater, there to meet their death. In an hour or so 
they begin to disappear, leaving their wings on the 
table, and adopting the more humble mode of creeping 
like their less aspiring brethren. Let him go out the 
next morning, and the native lad will be seen, bag in 
hand, gathering from their hiding places these wing- 
less visitors, from which is made a curry more deli- 
cious than turtle soup to an alderman ! If he retire 
to rest without the shelter of a muslin hanging sur- 
rounding his couch the music and fang of the mosqui- 
to will forbid repose. If upon rising he take not the 
precaution of looking into his shoes his foot may come 
in contact with a scorpion, or small snake. Casting 
his eye around during the day he would see the com- 
mon fly without number. Opening a drawer a com- 
pany of roaches will manifest their terror by a sudden 
and rapid withdrawal from notice. The wasp will 
be seen passing up and down the Venetian blind in 
search of food, and the locust will pierce the ear with 
its sharp, shrill notes. These statements may give to 
the reader a no very pleasant impression of a residence 
in that Eastern clime. I state but the facts in the 
case, admitting, however, that there is such a, thing as 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 51 

becoming so accustomed to these sights that they may 
be seen and heard with but slight effect upon the 
weakest nerves. Constant precautions are needful in 
protecting person and property from their painful and 
destructive visits, but the eye becomes so habituated 
to seeing them in all places and times, that no special 
emotions are awakened so long as they keep at a 
respectful distance. At night fire-flies glitter among 
the boughs of the Banyan tree, or dance around the 
spreading tamarind, producing a singular but beautiful 
effect. Bees abound in hilly districts, building their 
nests in hollow trees and rooky caverns, and yielding 
a honey of but inferior excellence. The silkworm 
produces materials for a fabric greatly used in years 
past, but confined at present to Brahmins, Mohamme- 
dans, and the more wealthy of the natives. Tho 
Termes form a substance which yields a beautiful Ver- 
million, and was much used before the discovery of 
cochineal. Within another insect is an article called 
lac, which is much used in fabricating brads, rings, 
and other ornaments of female dress. Ant-hills, seven 
and more feet in circumference, and five and six feet 
high, are often met with upon the plains, especially in 
jungly districts, which seem so much beyond the power 
of a tiny insect to construct as to lead to an ancient 
opinion that " in India there are monstrous ants, as 
large as foxes." Bishop Heber remarks, that " the 
pyramids, when the comparative bulk of those who 
reared them is taken into the estimate, are as nothing 
compared to the works of these termites. The coun- 



52 INDIA 

terpart of one of these hills is as if a nation should set 
to work to build up an artificial Snowdon and bore it 
full of halls and galleries." 

The Birds of India, though less splendid< on the 
whole than those of South America, are, in many 
cases remarkable for splendor of plumage, symmetry 
of form, and sweetness of tone. "We have the Condo?; 
occasionally met with in the extreme northern regions 
measuring fifteen feet between the tips of its out- 
spread pinions ; the Pondicherry Vulture, equalling 
in size a large goose ; the Bengal Vulture, which is 
often seen preying upon the human corpses that float 
down the sacred Granges to the sea ; the Lammer- 
geyer or bearded vulture, a rare and unsocial bird, 
whose home is among the Himmalaya ranges ; the 
Pondicherry Eagle, esteemed sacred on the Malabar 
coast ; the Finch-Falcon of Bengal ; the Fork-tailed 
Shrike, also a native of Bengal, and named " king of 
the crows," because of its incessant assaults upon 
that tamer and weaker race ; the Calao of Malabar ; 
the Malabar Shrike, with its head surmounted by a 
tufted plume ; the Rhinoceros Horn Bill ; the Jocose 
Shrike, named from its lively disposition and amusing 
manners, and known in the writings of Hafiz as the 
Bulbul or Persian nightingale ; the Mina or Grakle, 
most noted linguist of the feathered tribes ; the Par- 
adise Grakle, remarkable for its destruction of locusts 
and which, when kept near the farmyard, spontane- 
ously acquires the various cries of ducks, dogs, geese, 
sheep, pigs, and poultry ; the Pagoda Thrush, so called 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 53 

from its frequent occurrence among the pagodas of 
Malabar and Coramandel ; the King Fisher, inhabiting 
the hottest parts of the continent ; the Wood-pecker 
ranging the whole country from the southern Cape to 
the sombre forests of the Himalayas ; Parrots of 
various kinds and abundant in number ; the Peacock 
which roams in a wild state throughout the forests of 
the Peninsula ; the Jungle cock, whose locality is 
among the Ghats; the Crow, which in multitudes 
throng the yard of every dwelling, allowing no frag- 
ment of food to escape their vigilant eye and ravenous 
appetite ; the Impeyan Pheasant, whose home is in 
the northern iTiountains ; the Horned Pheasant, com- 
mon in the Nepaul district ; the Quail and Patridge 
of various species, and general distribution ; the Pas- 
sarage Bustard highly esteemed on account of the 
delicacy and fine flavor of its flesh and consequently 
bearing a high price in the India market ; the Golden 
Plover ; the Coromandel Courier ; the Promeprop; 
the Gigantic Stork or Adjutant, a voracious creature, 
devouring at one meal what would satisfy four men, 
very useful as a scavenger in clearing the streets 
of offal, and regarded with superstitious reverence 
because supposed to be possessed of the souls of Brah- 
mins ; the Pondicherry and Coromandel Heron, 
which last is also common on the banks of the Granges 
and other Indian rivers ; the Bengal Snipe ; the 
Horned Turkey of Bengal, with a fleshy, blue, cal- 
lous substance behind each eye giving it the full effect 
of a horned animal ; the P early -plumaged Gull : the 



54 INDIA. 

Black-backed Goose ; with many species of the Duck 
kind, and Poultry such as are found in the farmyards 
of the western continent. 

Our limits allow little else than the naming of these 
various tribes, leaving the reader to consult elabo- 
rate treatises on ornithology for a more extended 
acquaintance with their pecularities of structure and 
habit, 

India being almost surrounded by water, is supplied 
with a variety of excellent fish, among which may be 
named the Ponifret, of a flavor more delicate than the 
turbot ; the Robal, the Scir Fish, the Bumbalo, which, 
when dried, forms a principal article of food among 
the Lascars, or Hindoo sailors ; the pale brown Eel, 
King of the herrings, more than eight feet in length ; 
the Russelian Gymnetris, the Remora, which is em- 
ployed by the natives in capturing the tortoise ; the 
Dolphin, distinguished by the splendor of its varying 
hues ; the insidious Dory, inhabiting the rivers and 
other fresh waters, which, when perceiving a flying 
insect hovering over the water, shoots out a jet of 
water from its tubular mouth so suddenly, and with 
such unerring aim, as to tumble the insect in a 
stupified state upon the surface of the stream ; the 
Unicorn Acantharus ; the Climbing Sparus, which 
moves at pleasure up the trunks of trees growing by 
the water side, remaining hours out of water ; the 
Soher, with pre-eminent flavor and beauty ; the 
Whrahl, inhabiting the lakes, and much esteemed as a 
nutritious and healthful food for invalids ; the Leopard 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 55 

Mackerel, the Flying Gurnard, which swim in shoals, 
ever and anon darting into the air, and making its way 
to a considerable distance ; the Carp ; and the Mangoe 
Fish, called by the natives Tupsy Muchee, and regarded 
by Europeans as the most delicate food brought into 
market, and is, therefore, dried and salted for sale ; 
with several lesser species not worthy of special 
notice. India does not excel in the character of its 
Shell-fish, though the number is great. Oysters and 
.Lobsters are abundant, but of an inferior flavor. Crabs 
are large, palatable, and often dressed for the table 
of the European. Tanks swarm with small Land 
Crabs, which are eaten only by the more indigent 
natives. The Pearl Oyster inhabits the straits of 
Manaar, between the Continent and Ceylon, and is 
obtained by diving. These beds are less abundant and 
valuable than in former years, yet still yielding a 
revenue to government and wealth to individuals. 
The shells to be found upon the shores of India, are 
world-renowned, and need no particular mention. A 
valve of the Tridacna Gigas, the largest shell known, 
presented to Francis I. of France, is used as a bap- 
tismal font, in the church of St. Sulpice, in Paris. 

Thus far of zoology, or animated nature, as it ap- 
pears in India. A few facts must suffice upon its 
Botany. The vegetable productions of a country so 
extensive, and with such varieties of temperature and 
soil as those in Hindostan, must be very numerous 
and diverse. The herbarium in the museum of the 
East India Company, contains about nine thousand 



•56 INDIA. 

species, which, would be greatly multiplied were the 
whole country to be searched with the diligence and 
zeal that portions have already been. The vales of 
Cashmere, Delhi, and Serinagur, abound with varie- 
ties of the rose and the Row ering jessamine. In ad- 
dition to these, we find in different parts of the 
country the elegant atimuca ; the tchambag-a, rriuch 
used for adorning the hair and perfuming the clothes ; 
the misscenda, with its white leaves and blood-red 
flowers ; the ixo7'a, which, from boughs six feet in 
height, exhibits its scarlet and yellow tufts of bloom, 
enlivening the foliage of the wood ; the sindrimal, 
opening at four in the evening and closing at four 
in the morning ; the nyctanthes sanibac, with which 
the Hindoos perfume their hair before retiring to rest ; 
the nagatalli, which creeps along the wall, covering 
them with its foliage, together with various species of 
the violet, primrose, buttercup, lily, &c., which are 
chiefly found on the mountain sides or deep valleys. 

The chief food of the frugal Hindoo is rice, in 
which all the provinces abound. Wheat, barley, 
maze, and millet, are also grown, especially wheat, 
which is the prevailing crop throughout the northern 
districts. To these may be added peas, beans, and 
several vegetable species, unknown in this western 
world, are met with in the uplands, as also potatoes 
and many kinds of berries. Commerce is indebted to 
India for indigo, opium, flax, hemp, tobacco, sarsa- 
pariila, jalap, cotton, anise, betel, saffron, sesamum, 
many dyes, besides various reeds and canes. These 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF INDIA. 57 

are cultivated with different degrees of success 
throughout the peninsula. 

Among the forest trees of India, the first place in 
utility, and far from the last in majestic beauty, 
belongs to the Teak, a hard and almost incorruptible 
timber, fitted to supply the place of the oak in ship- 
building, and is, in this respect, its superior ; that it 
will not corrode iron, nails, and bolts. For universal 
application, rapid growth and durability, the Bamboo 
occupies the next place. It shoots up to the height of 
sixty feet in a single season, acquires a diameter of 
more than six inches at the base, is tough, strong, 
firm and light, and may be made to answer a variety 
of most needful purposes. Thick jungles of bamboo 
cover large portions of the peninsula, and by prevent- 
ing circulation of air make the regions around very 
unwholesome. Various species of Palm trees give a 
character to the scenery of India and farnish the in- 
habitants with many valuable products. Of this large 
tribe the Cocoanut tree holds the first place. Our 
limits forbid an enumeration of the various uses to 
which this tree is appropriated, and it must suffice to 
say that not a portion is allowed to remain unused. 
The great fan palm furnishes roofs for the native cot- 
tages. The smaller fan palm and palmyra yield 
toddy, an intoxicating liquor much used among the 
lower class of Hindoos, and leaves upon which letters 
&c., are written with the iron style; and the Sago and 
Area palm. The Babul tree is one of the most beau- 
tiful and ornamental in India, its flowers emitting a 
3* 



58 INDIA, 

delightful fragrance, and its timber much esteemed 
where lightness and strength are required. To these 
may be added the Sandal loood tree, which grows in 
the south-west part of Mysore, and is exported to Ara- 
bia and China, and to close the list the Indian fig or 
Banyan, which stretches its immense branches and 
holy shade not only over the pagodas and choultries, 
but over serpents and other venomous creatures — an 
emblem of benevolent nature which sustains and 
blesses the evil and the good. This tree is regarded 
with religious homage by the Hindoos, believing, as 
they do, that the birth-place of their god, Yishnoo, was 
beneath its overspreading branches : temples are erected 
near it and images placed under its shade. On the 
banks of the river Nerbudda stands a tree of this ven- 
erated species which measures two thousand feet 
around the principal stems, the larger trunks of which 
amount to three hundred and fifty, and the smaller 
ones exceed three thousand. This tree is called Cub- 
beer-burr by the Hindoos, in memory of a favorite 
saint, who took it under his special patronage and 
care, and it has been known to shelter seven thousand 
men beneath its shade. This species, though thus 
honored and useful, is doing more to demolish the 
splendid edifices of India than any other cause, the 
seeds falling into the crevices of the wall, vegeta- 
ting, spreading apart the long-cemented piles of stone 
and brick, causing temples and palaces and pagodas 
to become heaps of shapeless ruin. The Saul tree, 
producing a resin much used for naval purposes, and 



NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OP INDIA. 59 

as incense in the temples. This tree is used in detect- 
ing witchcraft, an account of which the reader will 
find in the last chapter of the volume ; the Cadukah 
of Telinga, bearing a gall producing a very permanent 
yellow ; the Jack tree^ with its pumpkin shape fruit 
hanging from its loftiest branches. 

Our fruit trees, as the apple, pear, plum, apricot, 
peach, walnut, almond, &c., thrive in the northern pro- 
vinces, while the southern districts abound in mangoes, 
guavas, plantains, custard apple, limes, lemons, but 
not oranges, (these being confined to the northern re- 
gions and Ceylon,) pine apple and shaddock. In the 
Himalaya Mountains trees are sometimes of enormous 
size, measuring twenty feet in girth, more than a hun- 
dred and fifty in height, and exhibiting a sheer 
branchless trunk of sixty feet, surmounted by a vast 
crest which waves above like a gigantic canopy. In 
those regions all kinds of European trees and plants 
flourish in abundince. 

Among the smaller trees and shrubs conimon to 
India are the Daphne CannaUna^ from which is 
manufactured common, but useful, paper ; the Rice- 
paper plant which grows luxuriously in Bengal ; and 
the Acacia, well-known for its airy and elegant 
foliage, besides yielding the gum-arabic of commerce. 

In respect to Mineral wealth India is one of the 
richest of known countries. Grains of gold are to be 
found in the bed of many of the northern rivers, while 
rich mines of the same precious ore and of silver oc- 
cur in the Carnatic, Assam and Bengal. There are 



60 



INDIA. 



copper mines in the mountains of Kumaoon, and in 
the provinces of Agra and Ajmere. Iron is common 
throughout the peninsula. Assam and the Kumaoon 
Mountains furnish large quantities of Lead. Some 
mines of Tin are worked in the district of Ajmere. 
Zinc is exported in large quantities from India to 
England. Quicksilver and Antimony are found in a 
few places. This, too, is the land of the Diamond, 
Ruby, Sapphire, Amethyst, Onyx and other precious 
stones. And in this country are quarries of Marble 
and Alabaster, of Sulphur, Coal and Naptha, of com- 
mon Salt and Saltpetre. Tradition has hardly exag- 
gerated in the accounts it has transmitted to us re- 
specting the minerals and metals — the precious stones 
and gems of heaven-favored Ind. 

Such is a rapid view of nature, animate and inani- 
mate, as presented in that eastern clime. "We but 
enter the field of inquiry and research before we are 
compelled to leave it, the proportionate limits allowed 
to this branch of the subject being more than reached, 
and yet much remaining to be said. But what we 
have seen suffices to convince us that the Hindoos 
have ample acquaintance with the Most High as made 
known by His works, so that they are " without- ex- 
cuse" if they render not to Him the homage of grati- 
tude and praise. 



CHAP TE R III. 

HISTORICAL SURVEY, 

What is known of Ancient India — Invasions by Sesostris, Semiramis, 
Darius and Alexander — Invasion by Mahmoud of Guznee — Somnaut 
Captured — Its venerated Idol and Temple Gate — Successors of Mah- 
moud — Invasions by the Portuguese — Dutch — East India Company — 
Black Hole of Calcutta — Governors- General — Relation of India to 
England — Remark of Dr. Duff — Measures pursued by the English — 
Opinions and Feelings of the Hindoos — An Historic Law respecting 
India — Characteristics of the several Periods of Hindoo History — An 
Eloquent Extract. 

" "Whoever attempts to trace the operations of men 
in remote times, and to mark the various steps of their 
progress in any line of exertion, will soon have the 
mortification to find that the period of authentic 
history is very limited. Beyond the era of written 
annals lies the region of uncertainty and conjecture." 

Respecting no country does the student of antiquity 
find this to be more true than of India. The Hindoos 
having no historical records that deserve the name, 
and such accounts as they do possess are mixed up 
with so many improbable and monstrous fictions, that 
we are left in total ignorance as to well-determined 
facts. From the " Yedas," which were written about 
the time of King David, and the " Institutes of Me- 



C2 INDIA. 

nu," we learn that the country anciently composed 
several separate kingdoms, varying in extent, and at 
constant warfare among themselves. Two families, in 
a special manner, bore rule, distinguished as the sun 
and moon, probably on account of their comparative 
power and splendor. Other accounts tell us that in 
the early days there were ten kingdoms in India, 
speaking different languages, five of which occupied 
the southern, and five the northern districts. It is a 
well-ascertained fact that neither the present race of 
Hindoos or their immediate ancestors are the aborigi- 
nes of the soil — but who the original possessors of the 
country were, and whence they came, are questions 
which have called into requisition the learning and 
research of England and the Continent, though with 
ill success. The Rev. Dr. Ward, of Serampore, closes 
a labored examination of Hindoo manuscripts in this 
decisive manner : " Such is Hindoo history as given 
by themselves, or rather an imperfect gleaning from a 
great and confused mass of materials, which have 
been thrown together in the Puranas, to arrange and 
settle which, so as to chose what is true and re- 
ject what is false, requires a mind more than hu- 
man. A real and accurate history of this country, 
from its commencement to the present time, with the 
dates of events attached to them, is out of the ques- 
tions^ Sir Wm. Jones says, " The dawn of true In- 
dian history appears only three or four centuries be- 
fore the Christian era, the preceding ages being cloud- 
ed by allegory and fable." Major Milford, an eminent 



HISTORICAL SURVEY, 63 

Orientalist, adds his testimony, that " with regard to 
history the Hindoos have really nothing but romances, 
from which but occasional truths may be extracted." 
After saying that India was one of the earliest inhab- 
ited portions of our earth, the sober historian is com- 
pelled to admit that a veil of obscurity hangs above 
its rise and early progress, which has thus far baffled 
all attempts at removal. But few can hope for victory 
where Robertson and Jones and Milford have met 
with signal and admitted defeat. 

Leaving ancient India concealed beneath the mist of 
antiquity and fable we will view the country when 
shone upon by the rays of historical truth. 

Sesostris, Semiramis, Darius and Alexander were 
the earliest to bring that peninsula before the modern 
world. Respecting the first of these heroes there is 
much difference of opinion. Some contending that he 
came against India in the year 970 before Christ and 
made large conquests, and exported much booty, while 
Robertson and others are in doubt as to the extent and 
oven the fact of these invasions. It is thought " that 
some light may be thrown upon this subject by the 
researches now in progress for the interpretation of 
Egyptian hieroglyphics." The expedition undertaken 
by Semiramis rests upon more reliable testimony and 
commands our more intelligent belief. From the 
pages of Diodorus we learn that this illustrious queen 
having extended her dominion over western Asia to 
Bactria, and having been informed that India was the 
most populous, wealthy, and beautiful of kingdoms, 



64 INDIA. 

determined upon its conquest. After three years spent 
in preparation, she landed an army of half a million 
horse and foot upon the eastern bank of the Indus, 
crossing upon a bridge of boats built under the direc- 
tion of architects from Phoenicia, Cyprus, and other 
maratime provinces. Here she was met by Strabro- 
bates, a Hindoo general, who had collected a force 
even greater than that of Semiramis, supported by a 
numerous band of elephants trained for warfare. 
The contest was long, sanguinary and doubtful, but at 
length the proud and ambitious invader was obliged 
to sound a retreat to the boats, amid the wild confu- 
sion of which it is thought that she herself perished. 
Next following the Egyptian king and Phoenician 
queen, we read of Darius, the Persian monarch, as 
undertaking to explore and conquer that country. 
Having learned through a general whom he sent 
thither, the populousness, fertility and high cultivation 
of the country lying east of the Indus, he crossed that 
stream with an invading army in the beginning of the 
fifth century before Christ ; subdued the provinces of 
Mooltan, Lahore, and possibly G-uzerat, drawing from 
these conquered princes a large tribute in gold and 
other valuable commodities. This dominion of the 
Persians continued for less than two hundred years, 
but during the latter part of that period it was merely 
nominal. 

In the year 327 before Christ, Alexander the G-reat 
having conquered the Persian empire, crossed the In- 
dus with the professed design of compelling these trib- 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 65 

utary states to pay their dues to him as the successor 
of Darius. Commencing his march for the far-famed 
Ganges he was met by Porus at the head of a nu- 
merous army of native soldiery. This resistance, add- 
ed to a mutiny in his ranks upon the banks of the 
Sutledge, compelled him with much reluctance to 
retrace his steps without gratifying his ambitious 
designs and long-cherished hopes. Determining, how- 
ever, jiiot to return in disgrace, he performed the extra- 
ordinary and hitherto unattempted project of sailing 
down the Indus, exultingly beholding the Arabian 
Sea, and thence, after incredible toil and danger, re- 
turning to his capital. "When Alexander withdrew, 
the natives set about corrupting the troops left behind, 
by encouraging them in every manner of excess, which 
resulted in the final extinction of all foreign suprem- 
acy among them. Seleucus, and after him several 
generals, ending with Antiochus, undertook excursions 
to regain those distant possessions, but their success 
was limited in extent and duration. 

After these repeated inroads of the Persian and 
Grrcek armies, the Hindoos enjoyed a quiet of several 
centuries, during which an enemy was preparing, 
whose impression upon the country was to be exten- 
sive, lamentable and lasting. 

About the middle of the sixth century of the Chris- 
tian era the eagle eye of Mohammedan ambition and 
rapacity was directed towards India, and this ill-fated 
land was destined to become the prey of conquerors 
surpassing in cruelty all who had as yet crossed its 



66 INDIA. 

borders. After several attempts at a permanent do- 
minion, but repulsion by the Hindoo princes, the time 
was at hand when resistance would no longer avail for 
their protection and freedom. In the year 998 Mah- 
moud ascended the throne of Grhuznee, one of the most 
important principalities of Afghanistan, and speedily 
commenced preparations for adding India to his do- 
minions. In the year 1001 he made his first appear- 
ance on the east of the Indus, penetrating so far into 
the Punjaub as totally to defeat the King of Lahore 
and Mooltan, returning with fame and booty to his 
mountain fastnesses. During the following twenty- 
four years he made twelve expeditions into the coun- 
try, in the course of which he overran most of the 
western provinces, plundering Delhi and other eminent 
cities, carrying away vast stores of gold and . silver, 
diamonds and precious stones, which he displayed to 
the admiring gaze of the Grhuznee mountaineers, thus 
arousing their ambition and eager desire for more ex- 
tensive inroads upon a land so teeming with wealth 
and luxury. In the last of these incursions Mahraoud 
entered the province of Guzerat, upon the southern 
boundary of which was located the village of Somnaut, 
renowned as the abode of a shrine of extraordinary 
sanctity. Attached to this far-famed temple were two 
thousand Brahmins, five hundred dancing girls, three 
hundred musicians, and other attendants in great 
numbers. After a long and desperate contest Mah- 
moud succeeded in capturing this venerated town, and 
upon beholding the gigantic and far-famed idol, with 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 67 

wrathful zeal struck off its nose, giving orders for its 
entire and instant demolition. As the attendant Brah- 
mins saw the threatened downfall of this object of their 
profoundest veneration, they fell on their knees and 
proffered an immense sum for its preservation ; — but 
the king indignantly replied, " / am a breaker, not a 
buyer of Idols." The work of demolition proceeded ; 
and on its reaching the interior of the image, there 
was disclosed a treasure in pearls, rubies, and dia- 
monds, almost beyond conception, and far surpassing 
the immense sum tendered for its redemption." 
These were carried to the metropolis, and conspired, 
with other events, to render Grhuznee for the time one 
of the most eminent cities of the east. With the trea- 
sures of Soranaut, Mahmoud carried the gates of that 
town wherewith to grace his mountain home — which 
latter trophy has obtained no little modern notoriety 
from the attempt of a late governor-general to recon- 
vey them to their former abode — an attempt which 
brought upon his lordship the reproof of Christendom, 
the rebuke of his employers, and which conspired 
with other acts of like folly to lose him his vice- 
regal crown. lii the year 1291 Mohammed (successor 
of Mahmoud) succeeded in establishing himself at 
Delhi, and thus commenced the first Afghan or Patau 
dynasty, the second commencing in the year 1291, 
and continuing until near the close of the fifteenth 
century. Then followed the Mogul dynasty begun by 
Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, in the year 1525, 
when Mohammedanism reached its heisrht in India, 



68 INDIA. 

extendinof from Allahabad on the North to Ahmednug- 
gur, (40 miles East from Bombay) on the South. 
One of the most eminent of these Mogul emperors was 
Akber Khan, who flourished between the years 1556 
and 1695, and who ruled with so much excellence of 
wisdom and righteousness that the native historian 
tells us that ^^ his memory still floats upon the tears 
of all IndiaP By his daring and judicious manage- 
ment the central provinces were preserved in complete 
tranquillity, and G-uzerat, Bengal, and a part of the 
Deccan were added to his already extensive empire. 
During the reign of his son Jehoughier (1605 to 162S) 
the English first established themselves on the western 
coasts of the Peninsula. Then followed Aurungzebe, 
great-grandson of Akber, who ruled from 1658 to 
1707. From his great-grandson Feroksere the East 
India Company obtained the grant of a large township 
in Bengal, through the personal influence of Dr. Ham- 
ilton who had succeeded in relieving the Emperor of 
a painful malady. The Persians, under the celebrated 
Nadir Shah, obtained a short-lived notoriety over parts 
of this down-trodden land. Our limits forbid a 
detailed narrative of the events that signalized the 
rule of Mahmoud and his successors during their rule 
over India. " Nothing in modern times has equalled 
the ferocity and desperation of these Moslem conquer- 
ors. Urged on by a mad enthusiasm ; intoxicated 
with the hope of rich booty, and inspired with the 
promise of beatitude if they died fighting with the 
mfidels, they sprang like tigers on their prey. A fer- 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 69 

tile country was left desolate ; flourishing cities, heaps 
of ruins ; palaces were burnt, temples pillaged, and 
rivers sacred to their fathers flowed with human 
blood." 

During the reign of Tamerlane, surnamed the 
" destroying prince,''^ an hundred thousand natives 
were massacred in a single hour. Timur the ^^fire- 
brand of the universe'''' arid greatest wholesale butcher 
of our species ever known, plundered and massacred 
without distinction of religion or sex ; " his track was 
followed by blood, desolation, famine and pestilence." 
The Mogul Aurungzehe and Mahrattee Sevagee, 
were scarcely less ruthless destroyers of the Hindoo 
race, wherever obstacles were presented to their mad 
and plundering ambition. Nadir Shah entered In- 
dia, slaughtered the inhabitants of Delhi, without 
regard to age or sex — captured Oude — seized upon the 
imperial treasures and conveying thence $15,000,000 
■ in specie— $5,000,000 in plate, $75,000,000 in jewels, 
— the renowned Peacock throne valued at $5,000,000 
and other valuables to the amount of $60,000,000, 
besides elephants, horses and camp equipage of the 
deposed Emperor. From the ill-fated days of Nadir 
Shah, the Moghul Empire in India began to decline — 
the various provinces became independent principali- 
ties, some under Mohammedan governors, and others 
under Mahrattas, until the city of Delhi, with a small 
district around, formed all that remained to the house 
of Timur. 

"The cessation of the Mohammedan power in India 



70 INDIA. 

caA never be regretted by one to whom are familiar 
the records of that beautiful but ill-fated country." 
Providence v^as so arranging events that these ruthless 
spoilers of that fair land were to yield their dominion 
to a people of another faith and higher impulse. No 
more do we read of twenty, seventy, or an hundred 
thousand slaughtered in one day without compunction 
of conscience, or the assigning of any plausible excuse, 
the inhabitants of whole provinces hunted like wild 
beasts for royal amusement, women devouring their 
own children in excess of agony. That dark volume 
finds a close, and the day has dawned, dim and faint 
at first, but the light of which will ever increase till 
that land become enlightened and Christian. 

In the year of our Lord 1498, Vasco de G-ama, a 
Portuguese navigator, having performed the unwonted 
feat of doubling the Cape of Grood Hope, landed at Cal- 
icut, a place of great trade upon the western coast of 
the peninsula. The period was very favorable to the 
interests he sought to promote, and which were ere 
long to be realized. After fewer delays and less oppo- 
sition than might have been anticipated, the Portu- 
guese established a commercial empire which lasted a 
century, and to which, whether we consider its extent, 
its opulence, or the slender power by which it was 
formed, or the splendor by which the government of it 
was conducted, there had been nothing comparable in 
the history of nations. "When de Gfama landed for the 
first time on the shores of India, he endeavored, by 
the numbers of his retinue, their splendid attire, and 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 71 

orderly movements to make a favorable and deep im- 
pression. But the historian has recorded a mistake 
made by these foreigners, which detracts somewhat 
from the dignity of the occasion. Some of the sailors, 
seeing a pagoda and concluding from the beads worn 
by the Brahmins and the sandal wood incense, that it 
was a Christian temple, at once entered, and noticing 
a variety of pictures upon the wall, prostrated them- 
selves before them, as before the Madonna and Saints. 
But one of the worshippers, as by chance he looked up 
and observed the strange and uncouth aspect of these 
imaginary apostles, some of whom brandished four 
and five arms, and had enormous teeth projecting out 
of their mouths, judged it advisable to guard himself 
by the exclamation, " If these be devils it is God 
whom I worship.''^ 

In the year 1596, Houtman, a Dutch navigator, 
sailed for India in charge of four ships laden with mer- 
chandize, and well equipped for an encounter with 
enemies on sea or land. Traffic was commenced with 
the islands of Sumatra and Java — was extended in 
1605 to Ceylon, and thence to India. Omitting his- 
torical detail, let it suffice to say that "so bold, assid- 
uous and enterprising were the Dutch, that in less 
than eighty years from the time that Houtman first 
sailed from Rotterdam they possessed all the ports and 
places at which the Portuguese had been established, 
with the exception of G-oa and a few subordinate 
towns, and had, besides, formed settlements on the 
Coromandel coast." 



72 INDIA. 

But the golden prize, the land of gold and gems, 
Was destined a third time to change possessors. An 
English armament, coursing the Southern and Eastern 
seas, captured, on different occasions, Portuguese and 
Dutch Indiamen, laden with spices, calicoes, pearls, 
porcelain, ebony, and other rich productions of this 
teeming land. A display of these, in London and 
other cities of Grreat Britain, inflamed the desire of 
the English to be engaged in so lucrative a trade and 
accordingly application was made to Elizabeth, the 
reigning queen, for the necessary charter-of protection 
and privilege. In the year 1599, her Majesty com- 
plied with the request, and " granted an exclusive 
charter to a company of London merchants, to trade 
with all the countries between the Cape of Grood 
Hope and the Straits of Magellan," under a name sim- 
ilar to that which is still retained to their successors 
of the present day. One feature of the Charter was 
that no gentleman should be connected with the com- 
pany — a dubious privilege in our modern estimation. 
The first factories or trading houses of this company 
were established at Surat, Ahmenabad and Grogo, on 
the Grulf of Cambay ; — then followed the acquisition 
in 1639 of Madras, in 1664 of Bombay, in 1696 of 
Calcutta, and in succeeding years, of Benares, 
Seringapatam, Ceylon, Gruzerat, Sinde, and, lastly, 
the Punjaub. In many of these instances of annexa- 
tion, resistance was made by the native residents, in 
some cases aided by the French and other European 
Colonists, but under Clive, Hastings, Wellesley, Corn- 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 73 

wallis, Harris, Col. "Wellesley (now Duke of AVelling- 
ton,) and other eminent English Generals, Hindoos 
and Mohammedans, rulers and people have been com- 
pelled to cower before the English lion. 

The history of that vast and powerful monopoly, 
"The East India Company," is deeply interesting as 
illustrating the trite adage of "great effects from 
little causes." The charter which was granted in 
December of 1600, received modifications and renew- 
als in 1609 '36 '57 '61 '67 '83 '86 '98 and in 1702 '8, 
and throughout the reigns of the Greorges, to the year 
1812 — while the company itself has been extending 
its limits, increasing its power, until its terminus has 
become the limit of the Peninsula itself. Events of 
thrilling and often most painful interest arrest the 
reader's attention when perusing the history of British 
ascendency in India. Let one suffice. For fifty or 
more years after the occupancy of Calcutta as a 
trading town, an event occurred, which, for condensed 
suffering and terrible results, scarcely has an equal in 
the annals of human barbarity and war. The reign- 
ing Prince (Suraja Dowlah) had become suspicious of 
the foreigners and manifested a determination to visit 
them with displeasure. Unable, from the condition 
of their fort and fewness of their numbers, to resist an 
invasion were it made, they determined to desert their 
insecure abode, and embark on the ships which lay in 
the river. But when the hour of embarkation arrived, 
the crew of the vessels, anxious for their own safety, 
moved down the stream q.r^d could not' be induced by 



74 INDIA. 

the most earnest appeals addressed to their humanity 
and patriotism, to return for the rescue of their endan- 
gered countrymen. Mght was at hand, and with it 
a command from the Nabob, to keep the foreigners in 
custody for examination on the coming day. In look- 
ing for a place of confinement, the guard found a 
room in the Fort which had been employed to confine 
refractory soldiers, and here were they destined to pass 
that memorable and to many of them a last night. 
" The place selected was but eighteen feet square, 
with only two small windows barred with iron, opening 
into a close verandah, and scarcely admitting a breath 
of air. Into this narrow receptacle the whole of the 
officers and troops, one hundred and sixteen in num- 
ber, were compelled to enter, and on their venturing 
to remonstrate, the commander ordered every one who 
should remonstrate to be instantly cut down. Thus 
were they forcibly thrust into this fearful dungeon, 
into which the whole number could with difficulty be 
squeezed, and the door was then fast barred from 
without. Their first impression upon finding them- 
selves thus immured, was the utter impossibility of 
surviving one night, and the necessity of extricating 
themselves at whatever cost. The Jemadars (or 
Indian G-uards) were walking before the window and 
Mr. Hoi well seeing one who bore upon his face a more 
than usual expression of humanity, adjured him to 
procure for them room in which they could breath, 
p,ssuring him of a reward next morning of a thousand 
jfiipees. The man went away, but returned, saying it 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 75 

was impossible. The prisoners thinking the offer too 
low, tendered two thousand. The man again wfent 
and returned saying that the Nabob was asleep and 
no one durst wake him. The lives of a hundred and 
forty -six men were nothing in comparison with dis- 
turbing for a moment the slumbers of a tyrant! 
Every moment added to their distress. All attempts 
to obtain relief by a change of posture, from the pain- 
ful pressure to which it gave rise, only aggravated 
their suffering. The air soon became pestilential, 
producing at every respiration a feeling of suffocation. 
The perspiration flowed in streams and they were tor- 
mented with the most burning thirst. Loud cries 
being made for " water," the humane Jemadar pushed 
through the bars several skins filled with that fluid, 
but this produced only an increase of calamity, 
through the violent efforts made to obtain it. About 
eleven o'clock the prisoners began to die fast — six of 
Mr. Holwell's best friends expiring at his feet and 
being trampled upon by the survivors. Of those still 
alive, a great proportion were raving or delirious ; 
some uttered incoherent prayers, others the most fear- 
ful blasphemies. They endeavored by most furious 
invectives to induce the guards to fire into the prison 
and end their miseries — but without effect. When 
day dawned the few who had not expired, were most 
of them either raving or insensible, and of the one 
hundred and forty -six who had been enclosed, there 
breathed only twenty-three .'" The reader after perus- 
ing this narrative, will no longer wonder that the 



76 INDIA. 

^^ black hole of Calcutta'^ is proverbial, the world 
over. 

The news of this disaster reaching Madras, Col, 
(afterwards Lord) Clive was at once despatched to 
Calcutta with a considerable force by land and sea, to 
avenge the death of their countrymen. Success 
attended the enterprise — the author of the black-hole 
tragedy fell by an assassin's hand — and the com- 
mencement of British rule in Bengal may be dated 
from that hour. The reins of government first 
held by Lord Clive, passed, in 1772, to Warren 
Hastings, and successively to Lords Cornwallis — Teign- 
mouth — Wellesley — Minto — Marquis Hastings — Ben- 
tinck — Auckland — EUenborough — Hardinge and Dal- 
housie — whose differences of character gained for them 
the titles of the "unscrupulous," "prudent," "am- 
bitious," "good," "foolish," "brave," &c., but whose 
administrations without exception, though in different 
ways, tended to produce the result we now behold — 
that of British Sovereignty from the Himalayas to 
Cape Comorin, and from the Bay of Bengal to the 
Arabian Sea. "Within these limits there are, it is 
true, small territories- under the jurisdiction of other 
European powers. The French, the Portuguese, and 
the Danes have small colonies on the Eastern and 
Western Coasts at Pondicherry, G-oa, &o. These they 
are allowed to retain by courtesy and because at- 
tempts at their expulsion might involve the home gov- 
ernments in war. Serampore, near Calcutta, once 
held by the Danes, has been purchased by the East 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 77 

India Company as also Tranquebar, south from 
Madras, and the like transfer will be made ere long 
of the other territories. There are also several 
provinces, the native rulers of which are allowed to 
retain an appearance of independent possession and 
rule. Such are Hyderabad, Nagpore, Oude, Gruzerat, 
Mysore, and Travancore. These territories differ but 
in name from other parts of the country. They are 
directly subservient to the East India Company, and 
let them act as if independent they would soon wake 
from their delusion. An English gentleman, called 
"Resident," is placed near the capital of these tribu- 
tary provinces and a military force officered by English- 
men is paid from the treasury of the Rajah, Let this 
Prince, with all his parade of royalty and independ- 
ence adopt a course opposed to the will of this Resi- 
dent, he is at first warned, and if that do not suffice 
the semblance of power is taken from him and he in- 
carcerated (perhaps in his own palace) with^ a large 
pension, but still a State prisoner. 

This topic may be closed with the following remarks 
from the eloquent pen of Rev, Dr, DufF: "A region of 
Asia, equal in extent to the whole of Europe (exclu- 
sive of Russia) with a population of more than a hun- 
dred and forty millions, — all of them aliens in blood, 
language, and religion ; and many consisting of war- 
like tribes, so gallant and brave as to have again and 
again repelled the combined hosts of the Moslem con- 
querors, with a heroism not unworthy of the best sons 
of Greece : — this vast region, situate, by the ordinary 



78 INDIA. 

route, at a distance exceeding half the globe's circum- 
ference, has, to its uttermost borders, been subjected 
to the uncontrolled dominion of British sway. So 
absolute and undisputed is the supremacy of the Bri- 
tish sceptre — so regular and perfect the organization 
of the British power, — that an English subject, under 
the designation of Grovernor-G-eneral — who may never 
have trodden on the Indian soil, — may embark on 
board a vessel in the Thames — traverse fifteen thou- 
sand miles of ocean — proceed up the mighty G-anges 
as far as Dover is from Gibraltar — perch himself on 
one of the peaks of the Himalayas — and there, by a 
single sentence from his lips, or a stroke of his pen, as 
by the waving wand of a mighty enchanter, set all the 
teeming millions of India in motion !" This language 
though strong and eulogistic of national prowess, is 
strictly correct. The Seiks were the last power to 
resist foreign invasion, but they have been compelled 
to succumb to the hitherto unconquered arms of the 
English in the East. All India is now in truth, what 
it has long been in name, " British India.''^ 

" Have the measures employed to secure this result 
been, in all cases, accordant with justice, integrity 
and mercy?" Far from it. The public will not bear 
such a portraiture of Clive and Hastings as will pre- 
sent them free from blemishes dark and forbidding. 
In proof of this, the reader is commended to the narra- 
tives of those earliest Grovernors of India from the 
powerful pen of Macaulay, Without wishing to class 
these officers with Teignmouth and Metcalf and 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 79 

" honest "William Bentinck," yet history compels us to 
the opinion that, with great differences in the charac- 
ters of the G-overnors, the same general features have 
characterized every administration from Clive to Dal- 
housie, and that vv^hen force has not been practicable, 
recourse has been had to intrigue and other sinister 
measures. 

" How do the Hindoos bear the yoke of their for- 
eign conquerors?" They know that they are an 
enslaved people, and that for ages past they have been 
as dust under the rolling wheel of the war-chariot and 
attempts have been made to reassert their independ- 
ence. One of the latest of these efforts occurred in 
the year 1806, at Vellore, when there perished of the 
four European companies encamped in the Fort, one 
hundred and sixty-four soldiers, besides many British 
officers. A later effort of the kind was made at Ban- 
galore in the year 1834, which (had it not have been 
discovered) would have resulted in the death of the 
whole cantonment of a thousand or more persons. 
These instances are few in number and limited in 
results. The system of caste among the Hindoos is 
preventive of that unity of action essential to the suc- 
cess of such an enterprise, while the Mohammedans 
are too few in number (though not destitute of desire 
and zeal) for such an enterprize. 

Much conversation with intelligent Hindoos and 
Mohammedans upon this subject, has led me to the ad- 
vised conclusion, that however iniquitous may have 
been many of the measures by which India has be- 



80 INDIA. 

come subjected to British control, and however pain- 
ful and galling is the present state of servitude and 
debasement, the country is, on the whole, better gov- 
erned than for centuries before the arrival of the first 
English vessel, and the mass of the people would be 
far from desiring a transfer of the reins of government 
to native rulers, or to any other European power. We 
may be assured that the wish is strongly reciprocated. 
The pages of history indicate this fact, that ^^ what- 
ever city or nation has, in the lapse of past ages, 
held in its hand the keys of the Indian commerce and 
influence, that city or place has, for the time, stood 
forth in the van of the civilized world, as the richest 
and most flourishing y So long as Arabia enjoyed 
the full benefit of Indian commerce, it was far-famed 
as "Araby the blest." "Indian commerce found Pal- 
myra composed of brick, and left it more precious 
than marble." Monopoly of the Indian trade enabled 
Tyre, single-handed, to resist, so long, the mightiest 
assaults of the Macedonian conqueror. Direct trade 
with India and the East, speedily raised Alexandria 
into such pre-eminence, as to eclipse all surrounding 
cities. Through Moslem victories Bagdad started up 
at once the Rome, the Alexandria, the Athens of the 
East ; and Ghuznee was long famed as the "Celestial 
Bride." During the century of Portuguese dominion, 
Lisbon outpeered all her rivals. 

England knows full well that she owes not a little 
of her present greatness to the fact that among her 
many colonies India is one, and loth will she be to 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 81 

part with that extensive and antique land. Aus- 
tralia — Singapore — the Cape — Helena — New Zealand 
— Canada. She would part with all before losing 
India. It is a crown jewel. But I must pause at 
this point. 

The several periods brought to notice in this chap- 
ter may be thus characterized. "When under the 
Native Rajahs, India seems to have excelled in wealth, 
magnificence, and literature ;— under the Mohamme- 
dan conquerors, the land was cursed with oppression 
and cruelty, the only road to preferment being con- 
version to Islamism ; v>^hile under the English rulers 
it is enjoying general quietude, peace and prosperity ; 
the people gradually rising to the attainment of that 
character which will make them happy in this life, 
and blessed in the life to come. 

I cannot better close this chapter than by present- 
ing to the reader the following truthful and eloquent 
passages from a well-known writer upon the East. 
"It must have been to accomplish some very important 
moral change in the Eastern world, that so vast an 
empire as is comprised in British India, containing 
nearly an hundred and fifty millions of people, should 
have been placed under the dominion of one of the 
smallest portions of the civilized world, and that at 
the other extremity of the globe. Is it not manifest 
that in the mental and moral improvement of this vast 
empire, G-reat Britain has a work of benevolence before 
her, which, in national glory, will eclipse all her 
other achievements, as much as the meridian sun 
4* 



82 INDIA. 

exceeds in splendor the morning star. Know, then, 
the country of the Howards and the Wilberforces, thy 
high destiny ! Never were such miseries to be re- 
moved — never was such a mighty good put into the 
power of one nation — the raising of so many spirits 
from the darkness of error and the wretchedness of 
sin, to the light of truth, and the blessedness of 
heaven." 



CHAPTER IV. 

INHABITANTS OF INDIA CLASSIFIED. 

Population — Native Hindoos — Mohamedans (Annual Festivities)— 
East Indians — European Residents, of several grades— Arabs — Par- 
sees — Chinese and Jews. 

India, within the limits before named, contains an 
estimated population of one hundred and fifty mil' 
lions. This vast assemblage is divided into numerous 
tribes, dijEFering widely from each other in origin, ap- 
pearance, habits, interests, and religion. They may 
be arranged with sufficient accuracy, into four classes, 
of which the first are Native Hindoos, to the num- 
ber of about one hundred and thirty-eight millions. 
These, though widely diverse in language and man- 
ners, adhere to a similar system of religious belief, 
and are thus united in the strong bond of sympathy 
and interest. Of this aboriginal population, the 
remaining pages of the volume will speak in detail, 
and, therefore, no further mention need be made in this 
place. 

The second class comprises the Mohamedans^ 
who number about ten millions. These are the 



84 INDIA, 

descendants of the early invaders of the soil, and 
they are not ignorant or forgetful of the fact that 
their fathers once conquered and ruled the land. 
The Mohamedan is in manner, cold and repulsive, 
his countenance seldom wearing a smile, and his 
bearing lofty and austere; in religion, most bigot- 
cdly attached to his own modes of faith and wor- 
ship, and, in heart, at deep enmity with his Euro- 
pean conquerors — being ever ready to take an active 
and resolute part in their expulsion. Insurrec- 
tions and mutinies have, with few exceptions, been 
traced to Mussulman craftiness and hate. Mosques, 
with their towering minarets, where the Koran is 
read, and prayers recited, are to be met with in all 
the leading cities and towns of the country. "Wher- 
ever a Mohamedan be, or however engaged, he per- 
forms his devotions with the most scrupulous exact- 
ness, fearlessly confessing his attachment to the 
Prophet and his creed. Many of them are employed 
as seamen on the small craft that navigate the eastern 
seas, especially along the opposite coasts and to the 
neighboring islands of Ceylon and Singapore. I have 
often observed, and never without deep emotion, the 
following act of religious homage and conscious de- 
pendence, in these ever imperiled sons of the deep. 
Before weighing anchor, the captain stations himself 
near the mast, and commences, in a loud tone, the 
recitation of a prayer to the Prophet. At brief inter- 
vals the whole crew respond in unison, ^^ Allah,'''' and 
at the close of the supplication, they thrice repeat the 



INHABITANTS OF INDIA CLASSIFIED. 85 

sacred name. On one of their days of annual festiv- 
ity, each Moorman raasqaes himself in the most per- 
fect manner possible, by painting his body with colors 
of various hue, decorating himself with most fantastic 
attire, and then " en masse" perambulating the streets 
with drums beating, horns blowing, banners flying, 
presenting a scene alike unique, grotesque, ludicrous, 
senseless and pitiable. On another day each follower 
of the Prophet hires or loans a horse or pony, and in 
military array, parades the streets, much to the amaze- 
ment of the gazing multitude and the amusement of 
the foreign beholder. A Mohamedan's dress is more 
European than that of the Hindoo, being a pair of 
loose trowsers of silk, a flowing gown of cotton, with 
turban and shoes. Their language is Hindostanee, 
though they readily acquire the tongue of the people 
among whom they may chance to dwell. Their em- 
ployments are as clerks and accountants, local and 
travelling tradesmen, soldiers, seamen, tailors, wash- 
ermen and instructors of Europeans, (their's being the 
language of the army.) They are industrious, and 
less addicted to gross and open immorality than are 
their heathen neighbors, upon whom they look down 
with deepest contempt, despising them for their gen- 
eral character and conduct, and especially their wor- 
ship of idols. But few accessions have been made 
to Christianity from among the followers of the 
Prophet, and but few of their youth are allowed to 
attend upon Missionary instruction. 

A third division includes a large and increasing 



86 INDIA. 

number, to whom are given the names of Indo- 
Britains, East-Indians, country-born, or more eupho- 
niously, and, to the persons concerned, more accepta- 
bly, Eurasians. The offspring of temporary unions, 
which gave them European fathers and native mothers, 
they are in general but lightly esteemed by those 
above and below them. The conduct of the European 
residents towards this class of citizens has, it cannot 
be denied, been in too many cases illiberal and highly 
wrong, especially as they, and two or more genera- 
tions, in most instances, are wholly without crime 
in respect to their birth. There is no excuse for 
this wholesale dislike, especially while among them 
are many persons, than whom community can desire 
no better members. A policy more enlightened, lib- 
eral, and Christian, has begun to prevail, and the 
East-Indian will ere long occupy the place to which 
he appropriately belongs and be judged of, not accord- 
ing to his parentage, but by his real and personal 
merits. The great fault committed by this class is 
their wasteful expenditure in personal decorations, 
their mistake of the -florid and bombastical, for the 
simple and appropriate in language and attire. This 
appears in the names they give to their children. " I 
believe a friend was adhering to truth, who, after 
observing, that if you meet with one Mary, Elizabeth, 
or Anne, you at least encounter five Floras, Theodo- 
sias, Calinas, and Clarissas. '' Not long since," says 
a writer, " I was in a room where five Anglo-Indian 
ladies assembled, whose names were Amelia Wilhel- 



INHABITANTS OP INDIA CLASSIFIED. 87 

mina Rose, Christiana Aurora Comfort, Jemima Cle- 
ment, Amelia Theodosia Clarissa, and Augusta Di- 
ana Noel Babington. These improprieties are both the 
cause and effect of their so long and entire exclusion 
from European circles. The East-Indians are scat- 
tered over the Peninsula to the number of four hun- 
dred thousand^ most of whom are content with the 
humble stations and small incomes of clerks and 
writers in government and commercial establishments, 
shopkeepers and musicians, while a few are enterpris- 
ing, wealthy, and every way worthy of confidence and 
respect. The names of Messrs. Van S., C. and D. are 
familiar to all who have resided in the city of Madras ; 
— philanthropy and religion having no more benevolent 
advocates than these Anglo-Indian gentlemen. 

A fourth class is formed of foreign residents, to the 
number of about fifty thousand. Of these the large 
proportion' are salaried agents of the British govern- 
ment, the rest being commission merchants or shop- 
keepers, lawyers, artizans, and Christian teachers. 
Of these, none but Missionaries contemplate a perma- 
nent residence in the country. The Crovernor-Gen- 
eral remains so long as the Ministry with which he is 
connected is in power, except ill health or misdeeds 
require his return. Officers, civil and military, may 
revisit their father-land on furlough at the expiration 
of ten years, an additional ten allowing them to 
remain at home upon the pension of their rank. 
Judges and other high officials often reside in the 
country from thirty to forty years — their income being 



88 INDIA. 

ample — their health but slightly impaired,— and their 
habits so Indianized as to render a return to Euro- 
pean customs undesirable and repulsive. Common 
soldiers at the close of twenty years' service may 
return to their v^^estern home, though some among 
them form matrimonial alliances with the daughters 
of their countrymen or East Indians, constituting a 
community of their own, and subsisting on their annual 
stipend, with the addition of small sums they may in 
various W"ays secure. Among them are a few respect- 
able and worthy persons, while the majority become 
enslaved to intemperance and lie down in a dishonored 
and unlamented grave. In the ranks of the India 
soldiery may at times be found men of high families, 
classical education, brilliant genius, and accomplished 
manners. Family feuds, disappointed attachments 
and vicious acts, caused them in haste or from seem- 
ing necessity to enlist, and here they are leading a 
life of toil and wretchedness — a sad, but self-inflicted 
punishment for error and sin. Parents and friends at 
times trace their relatives to India, and the Prodigal 
willingly accepts from those he left in disgust and 
rage, the twenty pounds required for his redemption 
from debasing and toilsome service. I am acquainted 
with editors, bank accountants, teachers, musicians, 
and artists, who went to India as common soldiers, 
and, through the benevolence of others, or borrowed 
money, obtained their release from military servitude. 
The time has been when to be connected with a house 
of agency at Calcutta, Madras, or Bombay was a cer- 



INHABITANTS OF INDIA CLASSIFIED. 89 

tain passport to a princely fortune. But those palmy- 
days have long gone by. Property is, it is true, still 
accumulated, but with greater toil and less speed. 
The trade between India and the west furnishes, of 
course, much business to the houses of commission ; 
but there are rival claimants for patronage, and years 
must elapse ere a sufficient amount be realized to 
allow the senior partner to retire, and yield his 
place to a junior colleague. Besides commission mer- 
chants, there are to be met with in the most import- 
ant cities of India, auctioneers, artizans and shop- 
keepers, who are toiling for wealth in that misnom- 
ered land of gold and gems. The children of foreign 
residents are sent home at the early period of five to 
ten yeirs ; regard to health, habits and mental culture 
rendering the change absolutely necessary. The 
instances in which childhood and adult years have 
been passed in India with no prejudice to body, mind, 
or morals, are " few and far between." 

In addition to the four general classes now named, 
the traveller through India meets with Arabs, the 
horse-jockies of the country, shrewd, daring and 
unscrupulous ; with Parsees, or fire worshipping 
Ghebers, descended from the original inhabitants of 
Persia, who devote themselves to merchandise on a 
small scale ; with Chinese adventurers, especially on 
the west and eastern frontiers, who import the fancy 
articles of their ingenious country, and manufacture 
shoes and other wearing apparel; and, at the southern 
extremity of the Peninsula, with Jews who for centu- 



90 INDIA. 

ries have remained isolated and distinguished from 
the heathen and Mohamedans around, not " bowing 
down to idols" but worshipping G-od, after the manner 
indicated in the books of Moses and the Prophets. 

These last are divided into ancient, or Black, and 
modern, or White Jeivs, whose origin and history has 
awakened just, and very deep interest, throughout the 
Christian world. The reader who would further ac- 
quaint himself with the descendants of an ancient 
and honored ancestry, as also with the Si/rian Chris- 
tians, who inhabit the same southern region, is com- 
mended to the writings of Dr. Buchanan, who visited 
those communities in the early part of the present 
century, and has left on record the results of his 
investigation, in his deeply interesting ^^ Researches in 
Asia.'''' 



CHAPTER V. 



GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 



The three Presidencies — Governor- General — Metropolitan Bishop — OiR- 
cers, &c. in the four Departments, Revenue, Judicial, Military, and 
Ecclesiastical — General Remarks. 

India has been divided by Ker British rulers, into 
the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bom- 
bay, which are located in the north and north-east, 
south, and west and north-west parts of the Penin- 
sula. These large sections are sub-divided into dis- 
tricts, Zillahs, villages and hamlets. Each presi- 
dency is under the guidance and control of a Grov- 
ernor, assisted by three members of council, all of 
whom receive their appointments from the Court 
of Directors in London — the governors of Madras 
and Bombay being inferior in rank and authority to 
the one residing at Calcutta, who is honored with the 
title of Grovernor-Greneral, This officer supports a 
state dignity scarcely inferior to that of an independ- 
ent sovereign. The office is sought for by the highest 
dignitaries of the realm, as, in addition to honor and 
emolument, the occupant is a Privy councillor, and 



92 INDIA. 

entitled to vice-regal privileges and respect. The 
names of Clive, Hastings, "Wellesley and Ellenborough 
occupy a leading place on the pages of English politi- 
cal history. In respect to rank, the officer next suc- 
ceeding the Governor-General, is the Metropolitan, 
whose home is also at Calcutta. This post has been 
held by the learned Middleton, the amiable and 
lamented Heber, and the thoroughly protestant and 
boldly practical "Wilson. 

The British residents of a rank inferior to that of 
those named, may be arranged into four general 
classes : — the revemie — the judicial — the military — 
and the ecclesiastical. 

The Revenue department includes those officers 
who are devoted to the general supervision of the peo- 
ple, with special reference to the collection of the 
rents. One of these resides in each district, under 
the title of Collector, with an Assistant. His powei 
is great, respecting all, European or Native, within 
his limits ; nothing of a public nature being allowed to 
occur without his knowledge and permission. His 
responsibilities are weighty, his duties arduous, and his 
better feelings often being put to a severe test. The 
British government is virtually a rack renting land- 
lord : — the Ryotwarre system, as it is called, which 
prevails throughout most of the country being com- 
pared to a "cider screw, while each district is like the 
squeezed apple, the collectors applying the extent of 
their power and then transferring the handle to their 
successors." The assessment is variable, being annu- 



GOVERNMENT OP INDIA, 93 

% 

ally made, according to an actual survey of every 
acre of the ground and its measure of productiveness. 
The whole extent of the Province is divided into tJiree 
classes ; the dry field, the irrigated field, and the 
irrigated garden land: these being again distin- 
guished by a subordinate classification of twenty vari- 
eties in each division. When the peasant's crop fails 
or is defective, remissions of tax are made ; when it 
is unusually abundant there is an increased assess- 
ment. When the crop of one inhabitant of a village 
fails, his neighbors are required to make good the defi- 
ciency ; and when the crops of a whole village fail or 
are defective, the neighboring ones are required to 
make up the difference to the State. The estimated 
proportion of the gross produce of the soil, taken as 
tax by the government, under this system is forty -five 
parts in a hundred. But this is not all ; for in every vil- 
lage there are several officers to each of whom a propor- 
tion must be allotted. There is the Brahmin, or public 
priest, the Astrologer, who lets the people know when 
the stars and seasons are in proper humor for favoring 
the labors and enterprizes of the village ; the Potail, 
or Mayor, the Clerk, or register of events and trans- 
actions, the Guardsman, the Schoolmaster, the Bar- 
ber, Doctor, Musician, Sfc, each claiming his share, 
which the owner withholds at the peril of serious loss 
iu the future. The respect in which the oppression 
is greatest, is, that the government is so unwilling or 
unable to lose the revenue, and the consequent effort 
made by the Zemindar or lessee to obtain the required 



94 INDIA. 

amount from the people under his charge, be their 
harvest what it may. Here is demanded on the part of 
the revenue officer, constant and most watchful vig- 
ilance; the effort being ever made by the Zemindar 
and Rygots to convince him that payment of the full 
amount is quite impossible, and thus induce him to 
petition government for a reduction of assessment. 
If he be a person of natural kindness of heart, the 
appeal is hard to resist, while over against this Sylla 
stands the Charybdis of G-overnraental displeasure. 
The fact is notorious to those much versed in Indian 
affairs, that the "reputation and prospects of a col- 
lector depend, to a large extent, upon his realizing a 
full revenue and that a recommendation for reduc- 
tion in the amount of assessment is considered in the 
light of a register of his own inefficiency. 

" But let their income fail them to a pound, 
'Ware, 'ware, my friend, for this is tender ground. 
Lo! what a hubbub rises o'er his head; 
What sundry sharp and cutting things are said 
Of mere incompetence and sheer neglect, 
And what, if it recurs, he must expect." 

These circumstances render the position of a Col- 
lector of Revenue onerous, responsible and trying. 
A contest is ever going on between the wishes of those. 
between whom he stands as umpire and his own bet- 
ter feelings — his regard to mercy, truth, and faithful- 
ness, and his self interest. But the office is one of 
great honor, and much emolument, (the salary aver- 
aging $15,000 per annum) and is, therefore, notwith- 



GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 95 

standing its toil and anxiety, eagerly sought and 
highly prized. 

The Judicial department comprises the several offi- 
cers who have in charge the administration of justice. 
Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, are each the resi- 
dence of a Chief Justice and Puisne Judge — persons 
eminent for their attainments in the legal profession, 
and placed, by the amount of their salaries, above all 
temptation of unfaithfulness to the truth. While Sir 
Wm. Jones was making deep research into Hindoo 
literature and science he was presiding with great 
ability over the Metropolitan Court. Of inferior rank 
to these are the Session Judges, which answer to the 
Justices of the State of New York, who examine into 
the merits, and adjudicate cases, which come before 
them through the Collector of the district, their 
decisions going to the Presidency Court for review. 
Each village has its police, with power to dispose of 
minor offences, reporting the same to the Collector. 
There is still another court, intermediate between the 
Sessions and the village, the judges of which are 
natives, or East-Indians, and conducted in the lan- 
guage of the country. In the chief cities there is a 
court of high grade, called the Foujde a dawlit, and 
answering to our Court of Appeals. Natives can 
be tried at any of these courts, Europeans only before 
the Judges of their own country. In the Supreme 
Courts, juries have the decision of cases, but in the 
Sessions this is left to the Judges, from whom appeals 
can be made to Calcutta, and thence to the " Q,ueen 



96 INDIA. 

in council." Every court of importance has attached 
to it natives, well versed in the different languages of 
the country, and in Hindoo and Mohamedan Law. 
The Sheriiihtadar, the Collector's assistant, is a 
native of rank and high salary. Integrity and truth- 
fulness are essential requisites in one holding this 
appointment, but confidence is too often sadly mis- 
placed. The Tahsildar, who presides over several vil- 
lages, is entrusted with important duties, and main- 
tains considerable state. Peons, or native consta- 
bles, are ever to be met with, bearing their badge 
of office, in the form of a belt over the right, and 
under the left shoulder, and staff in hand ready to 
quell disturbance and afFoxd relief. 

The Military department is by far the largest of 
the four, though inferior in rank to those named. 
India was conquered by the sword, and force is still 
required to keep it in subjection. The Indian army 
is composed of two general classes ; — the European, 
which forms part of the standing army of England, 
but who are sent to the East for a term of years, and 
at the expense of the E. India Company, the whole 
number of which, cavalry, artillery, infantry, sappers, 
miners, and engineers, varying not far from forty 
thousand rank and file ; and the native Seapoys, of 
whom there are about two hundred regiments of a 
thousand each. These corps are officered by Eng- 
lishmen, with native subordinates called Subhadars, 
Jemadars, Harildars, Naiks, &c. That these few 
thousand soldiery should be able to keep the millions 



GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 97 

of India in complete subjection, carrying their arms 
into rebellious territories, and neighboring provinces, 
and with uninterrupted success, is a fact which 
finds not its like in the history of any nation, present 
or past. It would appear, in looking at the subject 
from a distance, that a conquering state could not 
rely upon the fidelity of soldiers obtained from the 
nations conquered. Yet the native troops of India 
have shown that such confidence may be placed with- 
out harm. On repeated occasions have the faithfulness 
and heroism of the Seapoy been put to the severest 
test, but never has hope been disappointed. The dis- 
affections that occurred at Yellore, Hyderabad, and 
Bangalore were occasioned by too great and needless 
encroachment upon national usages, and urged on by 
men of aspiring character and ancient family who 
aimed at a regaining of ancestral dignity and renown. 
The British Colonies in Burmah, China, Singapore, 
and Aden, are all defended by native troops from India. 
After a term of service, the Seapoy is pensioned by 
the government, which furnishes an additional motive 
to fidelity. Not less than half a million of natives 
are dependent upon the national treasury. 

India has been territorially assigned to the Church 
of England and Scotland, and a revenue secured by 
land rental, goes to the support of the Ecclesiastical 
department. The Archbishop resides at Calcutta, 
and subordinate bishops at Madras and Bombay, and 
invested with such official importance that the Lord 
Padre Sahib is second only in. rank to the governors. 
5 



98 INDIA. 

Chaplains have been settled in some seventy or eighty 
places, among whom the names of Henry Martyn — 
Brown — Thomason — Buchanan — Corrie, and Hough, 
are not alone worthy of honorable mention for fidelity 
in ministerial duty. 

By means of the four departments now named, rev- 
enues are secured for the advantage of the holders of 
the East India Company stock — the rights of justice 
are made to be respected by the community at large 
— rebellions are quelled, and quiet sustained — while 
the spiritual wants of the residents are supplied from 
teachers of their heaven-descended faith. 

" The protection of private property is now generally 
effected by a British administration, though cases of 
personal hardship occur ; bodily suffering and barba- 
rian punishments are restrained ; means for an equit- 
able administration of justice have been provided ; 
superior courts of appeal have been established ; 
native chiefs and tributary princes have been com- 
pelled to submit to law, and observe something like 
equity in their proceedings ; a vigilant police for the 
suppression of crime and trial by jury have been 
either established or restored; the most perfect tol- 
eration of religious differences exists, and protection is 
afforded to each person in the observance of the rites of 
his chosen religion ; peace reigns in districts formerly 
distracted and torn by the contentions of despots ; in- 
dustry is protected from robbery and private wrong, 
while the enterprising and successful may amass cap- 
ital without alarm and enjoy it in security ; coloniza- 



GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 99 

tion by European citizens, and the increased liberty of 
the native and country-born population, the freedom 
of the press, and rapid intercourse with Britain is 
opening channels of instruction and giving an impetus 
to knov\rledge and enquiry, unprecedented in the past 
history of India." 

Another writer, himself too, an Englishman, ex- 
presses himself very differently. A few lines from 
his poem will suffice to illustrate his view of the con- 
duct of his countrymen towards that conquered 
people : 

"We're always taking, and we never give ; 
We care not if they die or if they live ; 
Hard task-masters ! beyond a Pharoah's law. 
We first withhold, and then we take the straw. 
Yet look to see the tale of bricks the same, 
If not, 'tis them, and not ourselves to blame : 
For joy or wretchedness, for weal or woe, 
We've one sole sentence, " Pay us what you owsP 

With no desire to act the part of an apologist for all 
of England's wrongs, past or present, towards India, 
I am yet of the opinion that the satirist has allowed 
himself a latitude of opinion, and severity of state- 
ment, better accordant with poetic license, and per- 
haps wounded ambition, than sober truth. While 
there is much of duty left undone, I do not believe 
that England is as faithless to her trust as this writer 
would fain have us believe. There is, however, ample 
room for improvement. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE HINDOOS. 

Figure and Physiognomy — Bodily Structure and Strength — Pedestrian 
Agility and Endurance — Emblematical Marks upon the Forehead, 
Neck, &c., — Dress of the Men, of the Women, of the Children — 
Ornaments ; their Kind, Value, and Dangers. 

With difterences of figure and aspect, arising from 
varieties of climate and occupation, there is a family 
likeness among the native Hindoos, which sufficiently 
marks them as one people. Their complexion is of 
various shades, from a light brown to a deep jet — the 
face oval, with a forehead neither high nor command- 
ing — eyes soft and dull — eyebrows generally well- 
formed — nose and mouth of European cast— hair 
black, long, wiry, and not at all inclined to curl — with 
a general expression soft and retiring, though accom 
panied with a dash of cunning, which puts you on 
your guard against that unfortunate hypocrisy which 
seldom has its concealed abode under a perfectly inno- 
cent exterior. Without the high cheek-bone of the 
North American Indian, or the thick lips and curly 
locks of the African, or the fiery eye of the Malay, or 



APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE HINDOOS. 101 

the impassioned look of the Arabian, the national fea- 
tures bear a close resemblance to those of the Cauca- 
sian race, of which they are commonly considered a 
branch, and from which they differ chiefly in the size 
and projection of their ears, and in general dignity of 
carriage and address, caused, to a large extent, by 
their condition as a conquered, enslaved, and, of 
course, obsequious people. 

Women of the higher classes are characterized by 
forms delicate and graceful — hair fine and long — eyes 
dark and languishing — with skins polished and soft. 
No country furnishes a style of female beauty superior 
to that which is found among the higher circles of 
Hindoo society. Whatever of attractiveness the lower 
classes may possess during the early years of life, is 
effaced by uncontrolled tempers, menial pursuits, 
rough usage, and want of mental cultivation. 

In hodily form and structure the Hindoos are, as a 
nation, of a much lighter frame than the inhabitants 
of higher and invigorating regions. Still, in this 
respect, a diversity exists, even in that country — the 
mountaineers of the North being strong and muscu- 
lar, while the southerners are of a more slender and 
delicate form. The traveller is struck with the differ- 
ence between the appearance of a company of India 
seapoys and British grenadiers, though the army con- 
tains some of the finest forms the country can supply. 

Free use of ghee, and other oleaginous articles of 
food, often produces corpulency, (there deemed a great 
beauty,) but not a giant frame. Palanquin bearers, 



102 INDIA. 

Cavardy and other Coolies, by a practice which begins 
in childhood, become able to bear heavy burdens, but 
as a general rule, their physical organization is incom- 
patible with great bodily strength. 

In pedestrian agility, and power of long endur- 
ance, many Hindoos are scarcely behind the natives 
of North America. A set of bearers will carry a 
palanquin, heavily laden, forty miles between the 
setting and rising of the sun, returning with the same 
the following night. The groom always accompanies 
the horse, and is seldom far behind when the rider 
reaches the end of his course. The Coolies, employed 
in unlading ships, will carry bags of salt and rice, to 
and from the shore and store-house, scarcely inferior in 
weight, to those borne by London porters. Mail car- 
riers move at a regular speed of six miles to the hour, 
be the contents of the leather bags upon their head 
ponderous or light. The mass of community, how- 
ever, do not excel in strength of body and limb, but 
are far superior to Europeans in speed of foot. 

A custom, universal among the native inhabitants 
of India, and one which attracts a foreigner's early 
attention, is that of inscribing various marks upon 
the forehead, neck, and arms, with a paste, made of 
sandal wood, and cow's manure, moistened by water, 
and rubbed upon a stone. Of these, the simplest is a 
small circle about an inch in diameter impressed on 
the middle of the forehead. Another mode is that of 
drawing horizontal lines across the forehead, neck, 
&C.J or perpendicular ones from the top of the fore- 



APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF THE HINDOOS. 103 

head to the nose. The origin of this singular custom 
is veiled in obscurity, but its present intent is twofold ; 
it distinguishes the wearer as a disciple of Brahmin- 
ism, while it indicates to which of the two great sects 
he belongs. The Vishnuvites make the lines perpen- 
dicular, and the Sivites, horizontal. A. part of the 
religious observances of each morning is to imprint 
this emblematical sign, (a box or bag of the material 
being kept prepared in every dwelling,) and to be seen 
abroad without it, subjects the delinquent to the 
reproof and persecution of his neighbors and towns- 
men. One of the first and most absolute require- 
ments of a Christian convert is to remove his ^^ sacred 
ashes,^^ and to appear in public with the least portion 
of this mark of the beast upon forehead, neck or arms, 
brings upon the transgressor the censure of his reli- 
gious teacher, and, if it be repeated, exclusion from 
church communion and privileges. It is understood 
by all to be a declaration of attachment to Paganism 
in preference to any other creed. Females put but a 
small quantity upon the forehead, while the fakeers, 
or devotees, besmear their whole visible person with 
this whitened dust. 

The dress of respectable Hindoos is simple, deco- 
rous, suited to the climate, and, when well adjust- 
ed, produces a very graceful effect. The garments 
worn by the men consist of a loose piece of white 
cotton cloth, in which there are neither strings, but- 
tons or pins, wound close about the waist, and fall- 
ing below the knees, with a second, of finer mate- 



104 INDIA. 

rial, though similar color, thrown across the shoulder, 
like a Roman toga, and, except the head, arms, and 
feet, covering the entire body. A native, when he 
saw a picture of his majesty, Greorge the Third, in a 
Roman habit, was heard to ask, " why he wore gar- 
ments like the Hindoos, and not like the English ?" 
The hair is usually cut or shaved close to the scalp, 
except a small lock in the rear of the head, the 
removal of which is an act of great turpitude. The 
majority of the people leave the head uncovered, 
unless the heat or cold constrain the person to draw 
his upper garment over it like a hood ; (in this respect, 
also, imitating the custom of ancient Rome.) The 
more respectable classes, especially they who associate 
with foreigners, cover the head with the turban ; — an 
article which consists of a strip of cotton cloth, nar- 
row and long, wound, when damp, upon a block of 
a required size and shape, and, when dry, removed 
and worn as a hat. It can be unwound, washed, and 
re-made when need be — its color, shape, &c., suiting 
the taste of the wearer. Before a Hindoo puts on a 
new garment, he plucks a few threads out of it, 
which he offers to different divinities, that they may 
be propitious, and that it may wear well. The feet 
are protected from sharp stones, by means of the san- 
doA, or leather sole, with a strap above the instep, and 
another across the large toe, or are encased in shoes 
made with velvet "uppers," covered with gold and sil- 
ver thread, open at the heel, and turned up at the toe 
in true oriental style. Stockings are seldom worn, 



APPKARANCE AND DRESS OF THE HINDOOS. 105 

never, indeed, over two thirds of the Peninsula. Be- 
sides the expense, vi^hich could illy be incurred, and 
the great heat, this article of dress would stand much 
in the way of a free and unrestrained use of those ser- 
viceable parts of the human body — the toes. "We, in 
this western world, place a high estimate upon these 
extremities of the frame — indispensable as they are 
deemed in walking. But to appreciate their exceed- 
ing utility, it is needful to go to the East. They are 
called by the Hindoos the " feet fingers." In addition 
to the- use made in keeping the shoe on the foot, the 
tailor, if he does not thread his needle, twists his 
thread by them, the cook is aided by them in cutting 
his meat ; the joiner in holding the board while he 
planes it; the driver wrenches the tail of the ox to 
make it move more quickly ; the pedestrian picks up 
whatever may have fallen, by the same means. To 
confine the toes within the narrow limits of stockings 
or socks, were to deprive the Hindoo of a medium of 
effort he can illy dispense with. Natives who are 
much in the society of Europeans, wear a long, loose 
gown, beneath the toga, which completely covers the 
upper part of the body, and the arms. The orna- 
ments worn by Hindoo gentlemen, are confined to 
rings upon the fingers, ear-drops, a band about the 
arm, and, after marriage, a small band around the 
toe. The more abundant, showy, and expensive dec- 
orations are left to their " better halves." 

The females of India have fewer articles of dress than 
their sons and brothers, but these are large, and very 
5* 



106 INDIA. 

graceful. The Chalice consists of a long piece of cot- 
ton, muslin or silk, wrapped round the middle, and 
falling in ample and elegant folds below the knees. 
One end is gathered into a bunch in front, while the 
other crosses the breast^ and is thrown over the shoul- 
der. Its length is from seven to ten yards, and as to 
color, texture, and value, may vary from one of plain 
white cotton, costing but a dollar, to one of muslin 
or silk, valued at ten times that amount. To this 
garment is at present very generally added a jacket, 
with half sleeves, which closely fits the form, and cov- 
ers, though not conceals, the bust. This simple attire 
is in wide contrast with that which prevailed in this 
country less than twenty years ago, when two bushel 
sleeves, and a head dress broad as the umbrella of a 
native prince, gave the belles of America, an outline, 
which, if filled up with sinew and bone, would have 
made them, of all created beings, the most unmeaning 
in shape, either for use or beauty. I remarked that 
the ladies of India appropriated to themselves the 
larger share of decorative ornaments. Upon each 
wrist are bracelets of silver, konk-shell, or glass, 
called bangles, numbering from five to twenty. 
Pendants of gold, or less valuable material, are sus- 
pended from the ear to the shoulder, and hooks, 
through the nose, reach to the chin. Bands of silver, 
of much weight, encircle the arms and ancles. On 
two or more of the toes is a silver ring, one of which 
emits a tinkling sound when the wearer is walking. 
A.round the neck are hung strings of large beads, of 



APPEARANCE AND DRESS OP THE HINDOOS. 107 

coral, or glass, with collars set with small gems and 
precious stones. Married ladies wear about the neck, 
the tarle^ which is either a band of gold richly chased, 
or a silk net- work entwined with silver cord. This is 
put on at the bridal ceremony, and is not removed till 
the husband's death. The long black hair, neatly 
combed and made glossy with oil, is rolled up in a 
tasteful manner, and placed a little in the rear of the 
left ear. The face is daily covered with a solution of 
saffron in water, which produces the effect (of course 
not designedly) of concealing the lady's age. The 
eye-lashes are extended by means of a little paint, 
and the teeth reddened by a masticatory common in 
the country. An India lady's jewels are called her 
"joys," (suntoshums) and large sums are annually 
expended by husbands and fathers in their purchase. 

Children wear but the slightest clothing until they 
reach the fifth or sixth year — though ofttimes deco- 
rated with ornaments, profuse and valuable. 

The value of these ornaments tempt the cupidity of 
robbers, who mutilate the bodies of the sleeping 
females and children to gain possession of these cov- 
eted qr>r.o"/1 '>"•'-'- 



CHAPTER VII. 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 



Hindoos a polite people — Visit from a native — Salaam — Namaskarum — 
Sashtamgam — Modes of addressing Superiors — Epistles — Materials of 
writing — ^Different styles of address, to an inferior, an equal, and a 
superiors-Remark by Abb6 Du Bois. 

In their forms of address and behavior in company, 
the Hindoos may be considered a polite nation. "While 
it cannot be denied that many of their courteous 
phrases and lowly prostrations, are given as the i-e- 
quirement of custom, rather than the language of the 
heart, yet to the eye and ear there is much that is 
agreeable and prepossessing in their conversation and 
deportment, especially before strangers and superiors. 
An illustration of some of these customs will place 
the subject clearly before the mind of the reader, 

I am at my table, writing, when a native visitor is 
announced. Permission being given him to come in 
— he slips off his sandals, leaving them on the veran- 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 109 

dah — removes his toga from his shoulders, binding it 
around his waist — and entering the room, approaches 
me, with his body slightly bent forward, his arms out- 
stretched in front, and upon the upturned palms of 
his joined hands, presents me two or more limes, as a 
peace offering. These I graciously receive, with my 
right hand, and place them upon the table, while he 
makes his salaam, either by raising his right hand to 
his forehead, and letting it fall to its former position 
at the side, or bowing and touching my feet and his 
forehead in three rapid successions, or in bending still 
lower, grasping my feet and placing his hand on the 
crown of his head. This over, I ask him to take a 
seat, which he does, '•'' pedihus intortis^'' on the floor! 
I do not request him to move his hat, for that is not 
required by the rules of Hindoo etiquette. In reply to 
the usual interrogatory, ' Are you well ?^ he says : 
' By your favor, sir, I am well^ or, if he be of a 
serious disposition, ' By God's grace and your favor, 
sir, I am well.'' To avoid all unfortunate impropri- 
eties I ask no questions about his vnfe, but inquire, 
in general terms, if the family are ivell, to which a 
similar reply is returned. As various topics come 
up, it is noticeable that he dissents from nothing I 
advance — expresses a strong desire always to have 
my favor — enters into no argument, lest he seem 
to intimate an equality with me in mind and know- 
ledge — in a word, he makes the greatest effort to 
increase my self-esteem, while he forgets not to put 
in a good word for himself and friends, and the oppo- 



110 INDIA. 

site for his enemies. If at any time he does not quite 
hear me, he leans forward, putting his hand upon his 
mouthy that his breath may not incommode me. If a 
superior in rank, European or native, enter, he rises, 
makes his salaam, and resumes his lowly posture. 
After the interview has been continued for a sufficient 
time, I have a very convenient, and not at all ungen- 
teel mode of dispensing with his society, in telling 
him, simply — to go. If he be of a highly respectable 
class, and one whose acquaintance 1 desire to continue 
— I say, slightly rising from my seat, and with a 
salaam-like movement of my hand, " Going, come 
again,'''' and he at once returns my salutation, 
and departs. So far from being offended at the 
request, he has been waiting, it may be, to receive it, 
for without such permission, he cannot with propriety 
close the interview. It is not at all impossible that 
the reader may suggest the propriety of importing this 
custom into our more civilized country, it being very 
convenient, at times, to say to a visitor, you have 
staid long enough for once, just go home and come 
at another time. 

So much for his appearance within doors ; let us 
now observe him without. He has replaced his san- 
dals, thrown his garment across his shoulder, and is 
passing from the yard on his way home. "We will 
take our umbrella and follow at such a distance 
in the rear that he cannot understand our motive, 
while we may observe his movements. He pays no 
attention to any female, not even a wife and mother, 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS, 111 

except to ask a question or give a command. Did 
you see that movement ? He put the palms of his 
hands together and raised them far above his head, 
letting them fall again to his side : that is called 
Ndmaskdrum, and was addressed to a Brahmin. 
Had we been near enough, we should have observed 
the priest stretch out his hands towards this passer by, 
palms upward, as if bestowing a blessing. Now, 
mark, he is passing a temple ; — (observe his move- 
ments) — ^he stops — removes his sandals — -gazes a mo- 
ment at the shrine — prostrates himself at full length, 
so that toes, knees, hands, forehead, nose, and chin 
touch the ground, (an act of reverence called Sdsh- 
tdmgdm) — rises — crosses himself — mutters a few 
prayers — replaces his shoes — and pursues his way. 
You observe the great care he takes not to allow his 
dress to touch a passer by, as defilement would follow 
the unholy contact. A carriage is coming towards 
him, convoying a wealthy and honored townsman. 
(Mark his movements.) He stops at the roadside, slips 
off his sandals, adjusts his attire, and as the carriage 
moves by, he bends to the earth, carrying his hands 
rapidly from his head to the ground, and recovering 
his former position, goes onward as before. At no 
time do you hear him talk and laugh in a boisterous 
manner — this is beneath his dignity, and foreign to 
all rules of Hindoo propriety. He pays high regard to 
all whom he deems superior in rank, and whose fa- 
vor it is his interest to seek or retain, slightly noticing 
his equals, and looking down with supercilious con- 



112 INDIA. 

tempt upon all females and pariars. He has reached 
his dwelling, and there we lose sight of him, for into 
the domestic sanctuary a stranger may not intrude. 

It may not be amiss, before closing my remarks 
upon Hindoo politeness, to mention a few of their 
phrases when addressing superiors, and benefactors. 
When a native of India enters the presence of his 
spiritual guide, he prostrates himself, and laying hold 
of his feet, looks up into his face and says, " You 
are my Saviour f — to a benefactor, " You are my 
father and mother f — to one whom he wishes to 
praise, " You are religion incarnate^'' or, " You arc 
a sea of excellent qualities^'' or, " You are the father 
and mother of brahmins and cows. ''"' The like com- 
plimentary expressions are employed in directing let- 
ters. Thus a letter to a King would be directed, 
"To the great, the excellent, the prosperous, the illus- 
trious King K , the nourisher of multitudes, the 

fragrance of whose fame has spread throughout the 
world, before whose glory the sun obscures its beams, 
whose fame is as pure as the queen of night," 6jc. 
To a Father., thus, " To the excellent person my 
father, the author of my existence, whose mind drinks 
the honey on the water-lily feet of the Deity," &c. 
To a Mother., thus, " To my excellent and dignified 
mother, who feeding, nourishing and comforting me, 
raised me to manhood, at thy feet I supplicate, which 
are the water-lilies on the reservoir of my heart," &c. 

The missionary, little known in his own country, 
beyond a limited circle of relatives and neighbors, 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 113 

when in India, receives letters addressed to " The 
great and powerful and illustrious RajaW — or " To 
the beneficent and glorious deity i^^wamyP) 

In external appearance, and construction of expres- 
sions, a Hindoo letter has noticeable features. The 
material is the palm leaf, the folds being about 
eighteen inches long, and an inch in breadth. The 
writing is executed with an iron stile, four to six 
inches long, and sharp pointed at the end. In writing 
neither chair or table is wanted, the leaf being sup- 
ported on the middle finger of the left hand, and kept 
steady by being kept between the thumb and the fore- 
finger. The right hand does not, as with us, move 
along the surface, but after finishing a few words, the 
writer fixes the point of the iron pen in the last letter, 
and pushes the leaf from the right hand toward the 
left, so as to enable him to finish his line. This 
becomes so habitual and easy that one often sees a 
Hindoo writing as he walks the street. As this 
species of penmanship is but a kind of faint engraving, 
the strokes of which are indistinct, and almost invis- 
ible, they besmear the leaf with an ink-like fluid, to 
make the characters clearly legible. In respect to an 
epistle, it is often put upon a single leaf, which, when 
finished, they envelope in an outer leaf, upon which 
they write the address. When there is occasion to 
communicate the decease of a relative, the custom is 
to singe the point of the leaf upon which the afflict- 
ing news is written. This has a like import as the 
black seal used by us. When a superior writes to an 



1 14 INDIA. 

inferior, he puts his own name before that of the per- 
son to whom he writes, and the reverse when he writes 
to a superior. That the reader may have a view of 
the different modes of epistolary composition common 
in the country, I have extracted three letters from the 
volume by the Abbe Du Bois. 



LETTER TO AN INFERIOR. 

They, the Brahmin Soubaya, to him, Lakshmana, 
who has all good qualities, who is true to his word, 
who is ever rendering service to his relations and 
friends. 

Year of Kilaka, the fourth day of the month Phal- 
guna. I am at Banavara, in good health. Send me 
news of thine. As soon as this letter shall have 
reached thee, thou shalt go to the most excellent 
Brahmin Anantaya, and prostrating thyself at all thy 
length at his feet, thou wilt offer him my most hum- 
ble respects, and then, without delay, thou shalt pre- 
sent thyself before the Shelta (the merchant) Rangapa, 
and declare to him that if he shall now put into thy 
hands the three thousand Rupees which he owes me, 
with interest, at twenty-five per centum, I will forget 
all that is past, and the matter shall then be at an 
end. But if on the contrary, he makes shifts, and 
continues to defer the payment of the money, tell him 
that I am acquainted with a method of teaching him 
that no person shall safely break his word with a 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 115 

Brahmin, such as I am. This is all I have to say to 
thee. Aseervatham. 

II. 

LETTER TO AN EQUAL. 

To them, the Lord, to the Lord Ramaya, who pos- 
sesses all the good qualities which can render a man 
esteemed, who is worthy to obtain all the favors which 
the gods can bestow ; who is the beloved of beautiful 
women, who is the particular favorite of Lakshmi ; 
who is great as the Mount Meru, and who has a per- 
fect knowledge of the Yajur Veda : the Brahmin Sa- 
baya; Ndmdskdrum, (respectful greeting). 

The year Durmati, the sixteenth of the month Phal- 
guna. I am at Balore, where I and all the members 
of my family enjoy good health. I shall learn with 
great gladness that it is the same with you ; and I 
trust you will inform me particularly of all the sub- 
jects of satisfaction and contentment which you 
experience. 

On the twenty-second of the month above men- 
tioned, being a day in which all good omens unite, we 
have chosen that the marriage of my daughter Vijaya 
Lakshu shall be celebrated. I beg you will honor 
the ceremony with your presence, and be here before 
that day with all the persons of your household, with- 
out excepting any. I expect you will put yourself at 
the head of the ceremony, and that you will be pleased 
to conduct it; and if there is anything in which I 



116 INDIA. 

can be of service to you, have the goodness to let mc 
know it : This is all I have to apprise you of. Nd- 
maskdram. 



III. 

LETTER TO A SUPERIOR. 

To them, the Lord, to the Lord Brahmin to the 
great Brahmin Anantaya, who are endowed with 
every virtue and all good qualities ; who are great as 
Mount Meru ; who possess a perfect knowledge of the 
four Yedas ; who, by the splendor of their good works, 
shine like the sun ; whose renown pervades the four- 
teen worlds. I, Kisheraya, their humble servant, and 
slave, keeping my distance, with both hands joined, 
my mouth closed, mine eyes cast down, wait in this 
humble posture, until they shall vouchsafe to cast 
their eyes on him who is nothing in their presence, 
after obtaining their leave, approaching them with fear 
and trembling, and prostrating myself at my full 
length before the flowers of Nenryhar, on the ground 
where they stand ; and thus submissive, with respect- 
ful kisses, will I address their feet with this humble 
supplication. 

The year Vikari, the twentieth of the month 
Paushya, I, humble servant and slave, whom your 
excellence has deigned to regard as something, having 
received with both hands the letter which you hum- 
bled yourself by writing to me, after kissing it and 



COURTEOUS CUSTOMS. 117 

putting it on my head, I afterwards read with the pro- 
foundest attention, and I will execute the orders it 
contains without departing from them the breadth of 
a grain of Sesamum. The affair on which your excel- 
lence vouchsafed to command me, is in good progress, 
and I hope that by the efficacy of your benediction, 
it will soon terminate to your entire satisfaction. As 
soon as that happens, I, your humble servant and 
slave, shall not fail to present myself (agreeably to 
the order of your excellence) at the flowers of Nilu- 
phar of your holy feet. I now entreat your excellence 
to impart to me the commands and instructions neces- 
sary to enable me so to demean myself as to be agree- 
able to their will, and that you will clearly point out 
to me in what manner I may render myself most 
acceptable to your blessed feet. For this, it will suf- 
fice, if I receive from your bounty a leaf of betel, 
indented with your nail, in care of some confidential 
person, who can verbally explain the orders of your 
excellency. • 

Such is my humble prayer. 

The Abbe observes that the " style of these letters 
strikes us as extraordinary — being so remote from 
that in use among us. But if we attentively, consider 
the epistolary forms that still prevail in the west, and 
analyze the letters which Europeans often write to 
their equals, generally concluding as an honor to bo 
favored with admission in the number of their most 
humble and most obedient servants, it will not be easy 



118 



INDIA. 



to determine which style of the two is the more ridicu 
lous and puerile. The principal difference, perhaps 
is, that in the Hindoo letters, the fulsome compli 
ments are inserted at the beginning, and in ours, a'> 
the ewr/." 




CHAPTER VIII. 



A HmDOO AT HOME. 



Native dwelling described — Furniture — Its apartments, especially the 
Room of Anger — The Hindoo returning home — Preparations for 
a meal — Rice and curry — Mode of eating — Sleeping-room — Diffe- 
rent modes pertaining to different classes — Price of dwelling — 
Evil Eye, and other superstitious fears — Flower gardens — Market — 
Times of eating — Topics of conversation. 

The wealth, taste, and rank of the owner or occu- 
pant have, of course, to do with the size, material, and 
elegance of the Hindoo house, though not as much as 
with us. I will select, for illustration, the home of a 
native belonging to the medium rank of society. His 
house is made of mud, hardened by the solar heat, 
or of unburnt brick, about thirty feet square, one 
story in height, covered with tiles placed upon 
rafters of bamboos or palmyra trees, split to the 
necessary size. Along the entire front of the building 
is a verandah about four feet deep, sheltered by the 
projecting roof, while in the wall are triangular in- 
dentations where lamps are placed when the street 
or building is to be illuminated. Entering the low 
door, which occupies a central position, we see on 
either side a small verandah or alcove, formed of 
baked clay ; where the inmate receives visitors, or 



120 INDIA. 

waits the preparation of the meal. Passing on, we 
remark that the centre of the house is an open court — 
unprotected from the sun and rain by any roof — upon 
the sides of which are rooms, small, and lighted by 
grated windows, which sarve little purpose but to make 
" darkness more visible." One of these apartments is 
appropriated to the idol — (the Roman "Penates,") and 
the rest to the various members of the household. 
The articles of furniture are a few stools — a low 
wooden be J stead — a loose mat — and a box for cloth- 
ing, books, and ornaments. In the kitchen may 
be seen several earthen vessels (called in southern 
India chatties) some for cooking, and others for hold- 
ing the food when made ready — a few small brass 
drinking dishes — an earthen barrel to contain the un- 
hulled rice, with a stone mortar and heavy pounder to 
prepare it for use — a brass pedestal to which is at- 
tached a lamp of eastern style, and sometimes a table 
of limited size and height — all of the most simple 
kind. Some of the nabobs of Calcutta and Madras, 
" a /a mode Anglais,'''' keep large pier glasses, chairs, 
couches, pictures, and the like, but these pertain not 
to a purely Hindoo dwelling, and often contrast most 
amusingly with surrounding objects. One apartment 
in the house of the rich Hindoo is appropriated to a 
purpose rather singular, and which, if rightly used, 
might be admired, though, as employed by them, of 
questionable utility. It is called the room of anger, 
or the arigry. When a wife is much displeased she 
runs to this room and shuts herself up, there remain- 



A HINDOO AT HOME. 121 

ing till her husband comes, to learn the cause of her 
displeasure, and if possible, remove it. But her 
chagrin most frequently arises from her not having 
the luxuries of eating, dress, and equipage, which her 
more favored neighbor enjoys, and until that is pro- 
vided for her, he must espect to be debarred the 
society of his amiable spouse. If it were not for 
fearing to impute to the husbands of our western 
continent less pliancy than their uncivilized brethren 
,of the East manifest, the writer would be disposed to 
express a fear, that many wives of America would be 
allowed to remain in their self-imprisonment, with 
their demands ungratified, until hunger and thought- 
fulness had appeased their irritation. But this by 
the way. 

We have seen the Hindoo at the residence of a 
foreigner, our eye has been upon him when walking 
the street — though not allowed to enter his dwelling, 
we may, through the eyes of others, view him at home. 
The labors of the day are over, and he has returned to 
partake of the evening meal and enjoy a night's repose. 
His wife, during his absence, has been preparing his 
food, which, to a large extent, consists of a dish fami- 
liarly called " rice and curry^'' and may be thus 
briefly described : In an earthen vessel a quantity of 
rice is boiled, while in another, of smaller dimesnsions, 
is cooked in ghee a chicken, fish, or piece of mutton, 
to which are added from two to four or five spoonfuls 
of a powder composed of these among other ingredients ; 

ginger, saffron, cummin, coriander, anniseed, red pep- 
6 



123 INDIA. 

per, tamarind, tumeric, garlic, made liquid in cocoa- 
nut milk, the amount of these ingredients depending 
upon the palate and custom of the person. The meal 
being prepared, a small quantity is placed before the 
idol to propitiate his favor. The wife then puts upon 
the floor of an interior room a brass plate, or what is 
more usual, a large leaf (two or more sewed together, 
if one be not of sufficient size) upon which a goodly 
quantity of the boiled rice is then piled, and above it 
the before-named fragrant and delicious curry. Having 
brought a dish for her lord to lave his hands, he takes 
his lowly seat for the enjoyment of his repast. Then 
follows a brief prayer — which foreigners insinuate 
it would be well for Americans to foUov/. As there 
were wanting table, chair, plate, or cloth, what 
need of knife, fork, or spoon ? The Hindoo has what 
is far more natural and convenient — his fingers I 
"With these upon his right hand, he mixes the in- 
gredients of his savory dish, and rolling a small 
quantity into a ball, tosses it dexterously into his 
mouth, great care being taken lest any portion fall 
back into the plate, since that mishap would defile the 
remaining mass. The reason of this extreme fas- 
tidiousness is the notion that the saliva is a very impure 
secretion. A Hindoo who is regardful of religious 
propriety never expectorates within doors (a custom to 
be imported also) nor, if a rigid adherent of the rules 
of caste, will he touch a letter which has been sealed 
by a wafer moistened by the tongue. 

If no stranger be present, the wonjen wait on the 



A HINDOO AT HOME. 123 

men, but a Hindoo woman never sits down to eat with 
her husband — she and her daughters sit patiently by, 
and then regale themselves upon ivhat is left. The 
meal over, his thirst quenched by water again brought 
to Kim, he retires to his couch, there to chew betel, 
entertain visitors, and thus lounge the hours away 
until the time for retiring arrives, which is usually 
from eight to nine o'clock. If the weather be not too 
warm he retires to an inner apartment, but if very 
sultry he chooses the verandah, and even the sandy 
road-side, where he converts the dress he has worn 
during the day into a covering wherewith to shelter 
himself fiom dew, mosquitos, and vermin — soon re- 
lapsing into a sound slumber. A stranger, when 
entering a Hindoo village at an early hour of the day, 
is strangely affected at the spectacle — multitude of 
sleepers lying by the roadside, wrapped in their white 
clothes, and presenting the appearance of so many 
corpses dressed in the habiliments of the tomb. Rising 
at dawn, the Hindoo goes to a neighboring tank, 
where, with religious care he cleanses his teeth, per- 
forms his sacred ablutions, imprints the emblems of 
his faith upon his forehead, arm, and breast, visits the 
idol for morning worship, returns home to take a 
repast from the conge drawn off from the boiled rice 
of yesterday, and then is prepared for the duties of 
the day. 

Such is a view of the dwellings and domestic eco- 
nomy of respectable Hindoos. Descending to the 
lowest in scale we see the Pariar^ whose home is a 



124 INDIA. 

small and wretclied hut, with walls of mud and 
covering of palmyra leaves — whose food consists of a 
few vegetables pulled from an adjoining field, to 
which are added a few small fish taken from a neigh- 
boring tank, or the bones of a carcass which he divides 
with the carrion crow and the prowling jackall. 
Rising to the highest station, we see the dwelling of 
the rich and honored of the land, large and imposing, 
built of brick, and with the top terraced to allow of 
the morning and evening promenade. Within, the 
apartments are of sufficient size for domestic purposes, 
religious pictures decorating the walls ; tables and 
chairs indicating an acquaintance with the more taste- 
ful foreigner, while the meal, though partaken of in 
the same lowly manner, and with the same natural 
implements, is rendered more delicious by pickles, 
chitneys, and other condiments that tempt the appetite 
of a Hindoo epicure. 

The price of a moderately-sized clay house (not 
including the rent of the ground) is about $15, and 
the annual repairs not far from $10. The repairs are 
usually made just before the fall rains set in, and if 
delayed too long, the destruction of the entire building 
is the inevitable result. 

There are many customs respecting the locality 
of Hindoo dwellings, and arrangements pertaining 
thereto which are worthy of notice. While the 
building is in process of construction, there may 
be seen near it a pole stuck into the ground, upon 
which is placed an earthen jar, covered with white 



A HINDOO AT HOME. 125 

spots, having for its design to " keep off the evil e^e," 
which would otherwise be harmful to the builder or 
owner. If a person meets with misfortunes in a par- 
ticular house, he concludes that some bones are buried 
under it, and accordingly leaves it for another more 
fortunate spot. "When a sum of money has been 
stolen from a dwelling, and it is quite certain that 
some one among its inmates is the thief, the Hindoos, 
in some places, rub the thumb nails of all the persons 
in the house, imagining that the name of the thief 
will become legible on the nail of the ofFeijder. 
Scarcely any Hindoos attach flower gardens to their 
houses — in that respect differing widely from the 
Mohamedans, before whose doors roses and evergreens 
may be seen in abundance. The cause of this con- 
trast I have never heard assigned ; but the fact arrests 
attention in the streets of city or village. The Hindoo 
rents his small lot — surrounds it (except it adjoin 
other dwellings) with a mud wall — constructs a gate 
with an archway and earthen lounge — puts his house 
in the centre — digs his well — rears his chickens — and 
if he can obtain employment sufficient to meet his 
daily expenses, has but the smallest amount of ap- 
parent care and trouble. If his house has been paid 
for, a salary of $2 50 per month will amply sufl&ce to 
clothe and feed himself, wife, and several children. 
The requisites for the table of a Hindoo are bought in 
the market (bazaar) and paid for daily, except milk, 
sugar, oil, &c., which are brought to the house by the 
seller, who receives his payment monthly. These 



126 INDIA. 

articles, though cheap, do not prevent the people from 
being generally in debt — occasioned by expensive 
entertainments, gifts to Brahmins and relatives, on 
special occasions, marriage of children, purchase of 
jewelry, and the like causes demanded by custom or 
self-gratification. The Hindoo Shastras direct that 
Brahmins shall eat at two o'clock in the day and again 
at one in the night ; but this law is at present but 
little heeded, though but two meals are taken by the 
people generally. The domestic conversation turns 
chiefly upon the business of the family, the news of 
the village, religious ceremonies, journeys to holy 
places, marriages, narratives of heroines and gods, 
with other topics not peculiar to that country in dis- 
tinction from regions more enlightened and Christian. 
So much for the Hindoo at home. 




CHAPTERIX. 

HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 

Author's arrival at Madras — Reflections — Catamaran — Massuli-boat— • 
War Steamer — Merchantman — Dhony — Basket-boat — ^Budgerow. 

The morning of March 21st, 18 — , found the good 
ship S., after a passage of 120 days from Boston, 
nearing the eastern shores of India. Upon her deck 
stood the writer, with thirteen other passengers, 
gazing with no small interest upon the land, which 
was to be their adopted home. The mind of each 
was too busy with its own reflections — too full of 
the future, to allow of much conversation. The mo- 
ment long desired, had finally arrived. The hopes 
of years were about to be realized, but the cup 
of pleasure was held by a trembling hand. A veil 
hung before the future, not to be penetrated by 
human sight, and the bright angel of Hope was ac- 
companied by her stern companion. Fear. A silence 
of considerable continuance was at length interrupted 
by the question, " What is that object upon the water 



128 INBIA. 

in range with the distant shore ?" While the possi- 
bility and probability of its character were under dis- 
cussion, we perceived it making towards us, which 
served but to increase interest and multiply conjecture, 
till one of our number exclaimed with earnestness, " It 
must be a catamaran^ "And what is a catama 
ran ?" asks my reader. The word is compound, and 
means literally tied wood. Several logs of medium 
thickness, measuring from twenty to thirty feet in 
length, are lashed together with strong ropes, one in 
the centre projecting beyond those at the sides, and 
forming a sort of prow or bowsprit. Upon this most 
primitive craft three or four natives plant themselves 
in a kneeling posture, and with short paddles, which 
they ply upon alternate sides, venture far out to sea 
for the purposes of fishing in the deep water, and 
trading with the foreign vessels that anchor in the 
roadstead. When the state of the weather prevents 
the use of all ordinary means of communication, 
a few hardy boatmen may be seen launching forth 
their simple float, and braving wind and waves to 
keep up a connection between ship and shore. Such 
was the object upon which our eyes rested on the 
evening of that memorable day. Onward it advanced, 
now quite sunk beneath the waves, and presenting 
the strange appearance of men treading the water 
and performing singular evolutions in the unstable 
element, anon rising high upon the surface ; now roll- 
ing far upon the side so as to unseat all but the most 
skilful and experienced, then suddenly righting to its 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS 129 

former position, despite our apprehensions for its safety. 
Our fears were awakened lest the unhappy boatmen 
should become a prey to the sharks that infest those 
waters. These cannot molest them while on their 
floats, but the danger is imminent if they be sepa- 
rated from this feeble yet sure defense. Even then 
the case is not quite hopeless, since the shark, from the 
position of its mouth, can only attack them from below, 
and a rapid dive, if not in very deep water, will some- 
times save them. 

All dangers escaped, the ship was reached, while 
nimbly sprang up the sides three swarthy sons of the 
East, appropriately styled " children of nature," for 
they were encumbered with no articles of dress be- 
yond the smallest cotton cloth compatible with the 
most lax ideas of propriety or decorum. " These are 
the Hindoos — these the people among whom we come to 
dwell !" passed from the lips of one and another of 
our company, as they retired to the cabin to think and 
weep. Immediately upon reaching the deck, one of 
the native comers took from the interior of a coni- 
cal-shaped cap, made of palmyra leaves, and worn 
close upon the head, a printed document, which he 
gave to the captain, and which was found to contain 
directions as to the place of anchorage, and rules to be 
observed while remaining in the roads. These were 
sent by the " Master Attendant," the head officer of 
the marine department in that portion of the com- 
pany's dominions. After disposing of their fish, and 
begging a few pice, or small coin, our visitors clambered 
6* 



130 INDIA. 

over the bulwarks, dropped upon their restless raft, 
loosed themselves trom the ship, and made for the 
shore. Thus had we gained our first sight of India — 
of the natives — and of that original and national 
craft, the catamaran. At the setting of the sun we 
dropped anchor ; after a brief twilight, the darkness 
of night closed around us, and we retired to rest, that 
we might be prepared for the excitement and fatigue 
of the coming day. 

The last night of a four months' voyage at sea is 
of short duration. It was so with our company ; all 
were out of their berths ere the sun cast its first rays 
upon the beautful city of Madras. Leaving the cabin, 
we found upon our vessel's deck, a multitude of na- 
tives, with various articles to sell and barter, among 
which, were fresh bread, butter, and eggs, with plan- 
tains and other fruits quite new to our American eyes. 
The places of the " catamaran jacks," were filled by 
another and more dignified class of native seamen, 
called massuli boatmen, so named from the craft they 
manned, of which three or more were lashed to our 
vessel's side. These may need a brief description. 
The waves which come rushing up the Bay of Bengal, 
finding their current impeded by the straitening shore, 
fret themselves against the Coromandel coast, especi- 
ally in the region of Madras, thus causing a surf, 
which, in the flow of the sea, and in boisterous wea- 
ther, is of a height and'power entirely irresistible by 
any boat of European build. Hence the mussuli, 
which, though inelegant and unwieldy in appearance. 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 131 

is the only kind of vessel that can pass with safety 
this dangerous barrier. They are usually from twenty 
to twenty-five feet long, six feet wide, and six deep, 
stern and prow pointed, planks an inch thick, with 
cross bars upon which the rowers sit, having for oars 
long poles with heart-shaped paddles, an extra one in 
the hand of the strong and athletic helmsman, and 
supplying the place of a rudder. Upon minute exami- 
nation not a nail will be discovered, the several 
planks being lashed or sewed together with a cordage 
indigenous to the country, produced from the filaments 
composing the husk v/hich covers the cocoa-nut, and 
called coir (kire). Sometimes it is fitted up with a 
board seat in the stern, above which is suspended a 
canvas awning, with brushwood below, and dignified 
with the name of accommodation boats or packets — ■ 
being devoted exclusively to the conveyance of pas- 
sengers and their light baggage. The twelve boatmen 
make themselves more comely by wearing a loose 
jacket and turban of native cotton. Several of us 
having joined in providing ourselves with one of the 
latter craft, we quitted the faithful " S." and launched 
forth to buffet the rolling surges of the Bengal coast. 
For a short distance we moved quietly and pleasantly 
along, the boatmen keeping time to a wild and dismal 
chant, which to our ears, though strange, was not un- 
pleasant. 

But this was not long to continue. At a word from 
the helmsman, each oar was quiet, while a swell of 
the sea which had gradually been advancing in our 



132 INDIA. 

rear was allowed to pass under us, and then the oars- 
men, with renewed strength, pressed onward, that 
they might be out of the way before a second had time 
to gather and break. The next feat was to pass in 
safety this second wave, which is usually much higher 
and more violent than the first. Onward it came, 
swiftly rolling towards us, rapidly increasing in power, 
but the practiced eye of the steersman saw where it 
was to rear its fatal crest, and kept the boat in check 
just in time to let it pass under and spend itself ahead. 
At this point they begun simultaneously to vociferate 
a half Moslem exclamation, " UUa-ulla-il ulla," thus 
invoking the protection of the patron prophet. The 
reader may be assured that strong indeed must be his 
nerves if he do not at this time tremble for his frail 
bark and its passengers. Much, however, of this 
stamping of feet, these frightened looks, and terrible 
yells, is intended to awaken additional alarm, and 
thus secure a promised ' douceur' in case of a safe ar- 
rival at the shore„ As we neared the land the surges 
increased in violence, till the last wave caused our 
faithful bark to swing high upon the shelving beach. 

I had been four months upon the sea, with not an 
island or rock to relieve the eye in its daily wander- 
ings. I had passed over fifteen thousand miles of 
water — had doubled the Cape, and seen our largest 
sails torn to ribbons by the storms that make their 
home in those desolate regions — but during this long- 
period, while traversing the Atlantic and Indian 
oceans, I had known no emotion of fear. That was 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 133 

reserved for the Madras roadstead, with its towering 
and dangerous surf. But it was passed in safety, not- 
withstanding our fears, and we stood upon the shores 
of India, that wondrous and antique land — whose bar- 
baric pearl and gold have stimulated the cupidity of 
nations down the long stream of time, and whose 
strange vicissitudes have furnished such ample matter 
to adorn the moralist's and historian's pages. We had 
little inclination, such was the heat of the sun and the 
Babel sounds around us, to allow full play to the many 
thoughts suggested by the event of arriving at the end 
of our long voyage, and reaching our new home in the 
East. Palanquins were in waiting to convey us to 
the dwellings of the Rev, Mr. Winslow and Dr. Scud- 
der, who were waiting to entertain us. 

Before leaving the beach, let us look for a few mo- 
ments at the several kinds of vessels riding at anchor 
in the roadstead. There is a war steamer. It belongs 
to the Naval Department of the East India Company's 
forces. Of merchantmen there is an abundance, each 
from one hundred to twelve hundred tons burden. Do 
you see that one with tall slim masts — of light build — 
sitting with swan-like ease and grace upon the water ? 
That is the S., which I have just left. "Well may her 
commander and crew be proud of her. It is in refer- 
ence to such specimens of naval architecture, that an 
English gentleman, of high standing in Madras, said 
to me that the finest and most beautiful vessels that 
appeared in the road were those from Boston. 

Do you see those strange objects crowded together, 



134 INDIA. 

with their unpainted sides — lateen sails — low masts 
— and square bows, the picture of uncouthness and in- 
elegance ? These are dhonies, or native sloops, 
which ply up and down the coast with cargoes of rice, 
timber, and various kinds of merchandise. Though, 
like the mussuli boats, exceedingly unwieldy and 
destitute of symmetry and elegance, they are useful 
and abundant. Were you here during the prevalence 
of the Monsoon, not a dhony would you see : these 
barks, unfitted to encounter wind and surge, are 
then housed away in some safe harbor. Foreign ships 
are not allowed during that period to anchor in the 
roadstead, and even the steamers make but a short 
stay, and then in the far distance from the shore. 
The mussula boats are undergoing their annual re- 
pair, and the catamarans have the coast to them- 
selves. 

Having acquainted the reader with the various kinds 
of boats and vessels common in the Bay of Bengal, I 
will now take him to the banks of the Cauvery, one 
of the largest rivers in the Southern Peninsula, and 
will there show him a craft still stranger than cata- 
maran, mussula boat, or dhony. It is a circular bas- 
ket, ten feet in diameter, with ribs of the strong and 
^pliant bamboo, covered with buffalo leather. I was 
one of fourteen persons desirous of visiting the Se- 
ringham Pagodas upon the opposite side of the stream, 
and obliged to cross in this way or stay at home. Not 
being willing to do the latter, in we got — one after the 
other — ladies, gentlemen, and boatmen. The first 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 135 

person leaned against one side and the second on tho 
directly opposite, to secure an equipoise, the third and 
fourth occupying the same relative positions, till we 
were all safely aboard, amid various wonderments at our 
curious posture, and jocose remarks about the " three 
wise men of Grotham, who went to sea in a bowl." " All 
ready ?" asked the head boatman in broken English. 
"Aye, aye, sir," answered one of us who had not lost 
his sea tongue. Off we pushed, and round we went 
again and again, while one held her breath, another 
smiled to conceal his unmanly fears, and a third 
shrieked with alarm. " No danger !" called out our 
captain. Soon we were out of the whirlpool and in 
the midst of the stream. On we moved with our 
bow(?) at one time north, again south, not forgetting 
the other points of compass. A half-hour of pushing 
and rowing served to bring us near the opposite shore, 
where we were whirled once and again, as before, and 
landed safe upon the beach, each declaring that a 
boat basket was the most unique conveyance he had 
yet seen or tried, and that but one thing more was 
needed to give interest to such an excursion, which 
was, that friends across the sea might witness this 
strange craft, defying, as it does, the poet's pen or 
painter's pencil. 

Were the reader passing from the Bay of Bengal to 
Calcutta, his attention would be ever arrested by the 
multitude and variety of water craft moving to and 
from that commercial metropolis. In addition to ships 
of all sizes from the British isles, and continental 



136 INDIA, 

neighbors, and western colonies, and dhonies from the 
various ports of the south and east, there would be 
seen the Maldivian vessels raised to an immense 
height above the water by upper works of split bam- 
boo, with lofty head, and stern immense, and crowded 
with a wild yet skilful and resolute crew. Ben- 
galee and Chittagong vessels, with immense rud- 
ders suspended by ropes to the side, and worked by 
a helmsman elevated high upward ; with other crafts 
indicating a nearer approach to European architecture, 
though clumsily and dangerously rigged. If desirous 
of continuing his progress farther into the interior, he 
would do well to avoid the pinnace and choose the 
budgerow ; the former, though safer and more commo- 
dious with respect to its interior arrangements, being 
less calculated than the latter to pass the shallows and 
sand-banks of that ever-shifting stream. " The budge- 
row, whose name is a native corruption of the word 
barge, is therefore usually chosen by European travel- 
lers, to whom time and expense are matters of impor- 
tance. Though to a certain extent, the term clumsy 
may fairly be applied to this craft, its construction and 
appearance are far from inelegant ; with a little more 
painting and gilding, a few silken sails and streamers, 
and divested of the four-footed outside passengers and 
other incumbrances on the roof, it would make a very 
beautiful object in a picture, and in its present state 
it has the advantage of being exceedingly picturesque. 
The greater part of the lower deck is occupied by a 
range of apartments fitted up for the accommodation 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 137 

of the party engaging the boat ; these are generally- 
divided into a sleeping and a sitting room, with an en- 
closed verandah in front, which serves to keep off the 
sun, and to stow away various articles of furniture. 
The apartments are surrounded on all sides by Vene- 
tians, which exclude the sun in the daytime, and let 
in the air at night. In front of the cabins, the deck 
is of circumscribed dimensions, affording only space for 
the boatmen, who, on descending the river, facilitate 
the progress of the vessel, by means of long sweeps ; 
the upper deck, therefore, or roof, is the chief resort of 
the crew and the servants. At the stern, the helms- 
man stands, perched aloft, guiding a huge rudder ; the 
goleer, stationed at the prow, ascertains the depth 
of the water by means of a long oar ; and when the 
wind will permit, two large square sails are hoisted, 
with the assistance of which, the lumbering craft goes 
rapidly through the water. As the budgerow is not 
calculated for a heavy or cumbrous freight, a baggage 
boat is necessary for the conveyance of the goods and 
chattels of the party, and for the accommodation of 
those servants who cannot be conveniently retained on 
board the superior vessel. A dinghee or wherry, is a 
very necessary adjunct of river navigation, but it is 
not always to be procured, and when one of these light 
skiffs cannot be attached to the larger craft, the com- 
munication between the cook boat and the budgerow 
is cut off; the unhappy passengers in the budgerow, 
after waiting in vain for the smoking supplies they 
had anxiously desired, are compelled to be satisfied 



138 INDIA. 

with a less substantial meal of coffee, eggs, and dried 
fish. As few persons venture to move after sunset ; at 
day-break in the morning, the vessel being pushed out 
into the stream, spreads her sails like a wild swan 
in her flight, or proceeds more leisurely by the 
united exertions of sixteen men dragging at a rope 
fastened at the mast head. Toward the middle of the 
day, the boat becomes insufferably hot ; both sides 
having received the fierce glare of the burning sun ; 
the heat is reflected from the water, which is now too 
dazzling for the eye to endure without pain ; the morn- 
ing breeze dies away, and it requires all the patience 
of a martyr to sustain the torments inflicted by the 
scorching atmosphere, especially as the roofs of the 
cabins are usually too low to allow a punka to be 
hung. As the sun declines, the boat gradually cools 
to a more agreeable temperature ; and when the wel- 
come shadows of the woods descend upon the deck, it 
is delightful to sit in the open air and watch the pro- 
gress of the vessel as it nears the shore, to the spot ap- 
pointed as its station for the night. The moment the 
budgerow is securely moored, a very active and ani- 
mated scene commences ; the domestics whose services 
are not required on board, and all the crew, immedi- 
ately disembark ; fires are kindled for the various 
messes — those who are anxious for quiet and seclusion, 
light up their faggots at a considerable distance from 
the boat. The rich background of dark trees, the 
blazing fires, the picturesque groups assembled around 
them, and the tranquil river below, its crystal surface 



HINDOO WATER CRAFT AND SAILORS. 



139 



crimson with the red glow of an Indian sunset, or the 
fleeting tint fading away, and leaving only the bright 
broad river — molten silver in polished steel — as the dark 
shadows of the night advance, form an evening land- 
scape always pleasing and varying with the varying 
scenery of the ever-changing bank," Such is a budge- 
row as it appears upon the waters of the sacred G-anges, 
conveying passengers and cargo to and from Calcutta and 
the upper provinces. Its place is being partially sup- 
plied by small steamers, a safer and more expeditious 
conveyance, though confined chiefly to Europeans and 
the more wealthy natives. These steam-tugs are a 
great convenience, for many persons undergo more 
fatigue, are exposed to more serious casualties, and 
are sometimes longer in a voyage by native craft from 
Calcutta, to the upper provinces, than in one from 
Boston or London. 




CHAPTER X 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 



Travelling propensity of the Hindoos — Primitive mode of carrying a 
child — Cart and Bullocks — Canopied cart — Palanquin — Tonjon — Mis- 
cellaneous vehicles in City and Town. 

Religious festivals, marriage entertainments, fune- 
ral ceremonies and mercantile transactions, furnish, 
occasion for the people of India often to leave their 
homes for long and wearisome tours and pilgrimages. 
When whole households thus travel abroad, the pa- 
rents, if very poor, have an ingenious method of shar- 
ing the toil of carrying their helpless infant. A cot- 
ton cloth, several yards in length, is spread upon the 
ground, the " wee thing" placed upon the inverted 
folds, while, with the ends tied together, the whole is 
slung across a bamboo pole laid upon the shoulders of 
father and mother, much as two draymen carry a bar- 
rel of sugar or a bag of cotton. In passing the rice 
fields and seeing the mother busy at her task of trans- 
planting the tender shoot, I have often observed her 
infant suspended in this manner from the bough of a 
neighboring tree, thus removed above all danger from 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 141 

reptiles and vermin, while the wind performed the im- 
portant office of rocking the cradle. If pecuniary 
means allow, an ox trained for the purpose, or an abo- 
riginal pony is obtained, and on it is placed the lug- 
gage, above which sits the mother, with two or more 
of her youthful family. A method which is deemed 
a grade higher in respectability and comfort, is to call 
into use a common cart, in Southern India called a 
bandy, drawn by two of the inferior class of the small 
but hardy bullocks. These conveyances are very ser- 
viceable in conveying travellers with their baggage 
and utensils — the tents and stores of the soldiery — 
the treasure received at the out-stations for transport- 
ation to the metropolis — with the inland products that 
need to be brought to the seaboard towns for exporta- 
tion. When heavily laden they are drawn at the 
slow and wearisome rate of from fifteen to twenty 
miles per day. 

Every Hindoo village of any importance has a 
set of officers to regulate and control its internal 
affairs. The " Headman" of this constabulary force 
maintains no little state in respect to dwelling, 
dress, equipage and attendants. His official con- 
veyance is called a Boivbandy, and is formed by 
placing upon the axletree of a common bandy a plat- 
form about five feet square, covering which is a cush- 
ion with a pillow to recline upon, while to shield from 
the sun and rain, a conical-shaped canopy of cotton 
cloth rises to the height of four or more feet, sur- 
mounted by a 'gilded ball, glittering in the rays of the 



142 INDIA. 

resplendent sun. Much taste is displayed in the orna- 
ments by which this vehicle is decorated, the axletrees 
and beams being painted of various hues, vi^hile the 
depending tassels of parti-colored silk are graceful and 
imposing, if not in. all respects tasteful and elegant. 
These carriages are drav^^n by large milk-white bul- 
locks, Avith bells about their necks, several footmen 
running by their side and in the rear, while a crier 
precedes the cavalcade, blowing at intervals a long 
trumpet, and informing the people that the "great 
man" is coming, and that they must do him reverence. 

The vehicle in use among the higher classes of Hin- 
doos, and almost wholly so among foreign residents, 
is the palanquin, which, from its importance claims 
a particular description. 

Not long before leaving Madras, I found it neces- 
sary to visit the neighboring village of S. Having 
sent to the nearest place of rendezvous, the maistry, 
or headman of a set of bearers, soon entered my pre- 
sence with a low salaam, when the following colloquy 
passed between us : " Well, maistry, I wish to go to 
S. Have you a neat palanquin and a set of good 
booies (bearers) all ready ?" " Yes, sir — we can go at 
any moment the Reverend order." "How far is it?" 
" Four kathams," (anglice, forty miles). " How 
many bearers will be needed ?" " If the Reverend 
wishes to go through in one night, a full set of twelve 
men — a mussalchee, (torch-bearer) and cavardy cooly. 
At what time does your Reverence want to leave ?" 
*' At six o'clock. Be here all of you at that hour, 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. ' 143 

and I shall be ready. But stop a moment — tell me 
first what you are to charge." '• The Reverend knows 
what the government rates are, but for master'' s fojvor 
(making a low salaam,) we will go for one rupee 
(about fifty cents) apiece each way." "Well, I will 
give it if you do well — remember now, a good palan- 
quin and good practiced fellows." " How could I do 
otherwise for the Reverend ?" — with which flattering 
expression he salaamed himself out of my presence, 
and went about making ready for the excursion. At 
the hour appointed, the whole set came gliding into 
the yard, the empty palanquin being brought leisurely 
along by four persons, who placed it before the door, 
while each in turn made his obeisance. " Well, mais- 
try, are your men all here ?" " The Reverend count 
and see." The whole twelve were then passed in re- 
view. " The mussalchee, where is he ?" " There, 
your Reverence," and I immediately recognized this 
important personage by his long stick with cotton 
cloth wound round one end, which, in journeying he 
carries in his left hand, and keeps saturated with oil 
from a flask in his right. This torch-man is always 
considered necessary, though the light of the moon 
may render his flambeau quite uncalled for. " And 
the cavardy cooly, where is he ?" Upon which there 
stepped forward a short, thick-set man, all muscle and 
sinew. " Well, now, let us look at your palanquin." 
And had the reader stood by my side he would have 
observed that the singular conveyance submitted to 
his examination is shaped like an oblong box, in length 



144 INDIA. 

six feet — in depth and width four. A strong pole ex- 
tends from either end about five feet, which is fasten- 
ed by means of four rods to the body of the vehicle, 
and in case of a long journey an additional rope at- 
tached to one pole passes under to that of the opposite. 
These arms, the frame-work, panneling, &c. are made 
of teak or other pliant wood, with sliding doors and 
Venetian blinds. Within, upon a rattan bottom, is 
placed a mattress covered with chintz or morocco, 
which forms the traveller's seat and bed. Passing 
from one of the inner sides to the opposite, is a wide 
leathern strap, against which he leans, while a small 
pillow lies loose upon the cushion, by which his knees 
can be a little elevated and relieved from the tedious- 
ness of a horizontal position. Just over the spot 
where the feet are to be placed, there is a shelf, 
where books, medicine, &c., can be deposited, near 
which is a watch pocket, and many other little 
contrivances essential to one who anticipates a journey 
far. from home. The whole is painted green, and 
on the top is a large cotton cloth to shield the occu- 
pant from the dust, and colored blue or black, 
according to the taste of the owner. As my maistry 
has brought a superior article, the reader will remark 
that it has a few extra conveniences. There is a 
second top, raised about four inches above the first, 
thus admitting a current of air, and tending to pro- 
duce greater coolness and coAfort. Upon this second 
covering is a tin box, painted black and called an m- 
perial, which forms a receptacle for those articles of 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 146 

clothing that cannot find room in the main body of the 
vehicle. A gurglet (earthen bottle) for water, is 
nicely encased in a wicker-work basket, and fastened 
upon the end of the pole next the body of the palan- 
quin ; and in the same position upon the opposite 
sides, are bottles for oil and medicines. 

Such was the conveyance brought for my night's 
excursion. In the first place, two square tin boxes 
were filled, one with necessary clothing, and the other 
with table furniture, cooking utensils, "curry stuffs," 
bread, and other et ceteras. These were given to the 
cavardy cooly, who fastened one upon each end of a 
strong bamboo, and having slung them upon his 
shoulder started off immediately, that he might be at 
the end of the stage before my arrival. 

Now for the palanquin — in went one article after 
another, the poor bearers beginning to think that the 
Reverend's money and favor were to be obtained at 
the expense of no slight fatigue. 

But their complaints were little noticed. Just so 
much must go, and in this way only. The last article 
being stowed away, the maistry was told to call his 
men for a departure. Slowly they rose from their 
recumbent posture upon the verandah or sand, where 
they had seized a few moments to refresh themselves 
in preparation for the fatiguing duties before them., 
Their first act of making ready was to aid each other, 
in winding around the body a long cotton cloth, by 
way of imparting greater strength to the frame. Then 
followed the taking of their stations, each being sup^ 



146 INDIA. 

plied with a small pad to prevent the shoulder being 
injured by the friction of the pole, while those of a 
shorter size were furnished with a second or third to 
bring the palanquin upon a level. " All ready, mais- 
try?" "All ready," was the reply — a parting saluta- 
tion to the friends I was about to leave, and in I 
crept, when first the rear, then the forward beams 
were slowly placed upon the shoulders of my men, and 
off I hastened, while the shout began with which they 
kept time and directed their tread. To a griffin 
{alias, a new-comer), this sound is rather frightful, 
and I have heard of a young man who was informed 
that so soon as his bearers began to make a noise he 
must jump out and run for his life. He did as he was 
directed, not a little to the surprise of the innocent 
natives and amusement of his jocose friends. Being 
accustomed to these sounds, they neither alarmed me 
by their strangeness or troubled me by their apparent 
expressions of pain — for I knew them to be necessary 
to equality of tread and the preservation of courage 
and good spirits. At times these responses have no 
meaning, being a simple " he he, ho ho,^' while again 
they have reference to the size and weight of the per- 
son they are carrying, of which the following is a sig- 
nificant illustration : 



" Oh what a heavy bag, Ho, ho, 
He is an ample weight, " " 

Let's let his Palkee down, " " 
Let's set him in the mud, " " 
No, but he'll be angry then, " " 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 147 

Aye, and he'll beat us then, " " 
Then let us hasten on, " *•' 

Jump along, jump along," " " 

If a lady be the passenger, such expressions as 
these may be heard : 

" She's not heavy, Putterum (care) 
Carry her softly, 
Nice little lady, 
Here's a bridge, 
Carry her carefully, 
Carry her gently, 
Sing along cheerily, 

" Putterum, Putterum." 

When passing through the streets of a town, they 
are accustomed to dignify the traveller with the no- 
blest titles. 

" Here is a great man, Ho, ho, 
He is a Rajah, " " 

She is a Ranee," " " 

for the reason that their own importance will be en- 
hanced by an attendance upon so noble a person. 

When approaching home the theme is changed. 
The benevolence of the traveller is then the burden 
of song. The ear is saluted by complimentary ex- 
pressions like these : 

" He is a charity man, Ho, ho» 
He loves to do good, " " 
She is benevolent, " " 

She won't forget us," " " 

the object of which is to remind the one they are car- 



148 INDIA. 

rying, that in case of a safe arrival at home, a little 
extra pay will not be at all unwelcome. 

As I passed beyond the city limits, the face of the 
country presented little to interest, and my confined 
position allowed but a glance at any object as I 
passed. To while away time that began to hang 
heavily, I availed myself of the remaining twilight 
to read a book, brought for that purpose. This was 
difficult, for the tread of the bearers, though usually 
regular, caused a motion of the conveyance more 
tremulous than that of a railroad car. I succeeded 
tolerably well, however, though such a mode of test- 
ing the strength of the eyes is contrary to the advice 
of the wise and prudent. 

But of all the vehicles in which I have yet had the 
fortune to be conveyed, the palanquin is the most 
lonely, and least attractive or agreeable. It is emi- 
nently useful, and here your praise of it must end. 
Carrying but one person, there he must sit and think 
and speculate, while there is just enough about him to 
divert attention, and thus to forbid a very profitable 
and connected train of reflection. Such being the 
case, I was right glad to perceive that it was late 
enough to conclude upon retiring to rest. Having 
accordingly told the men to set me down, which 
was willingly done, I removed the end of the strap 
behind, and arranged my pillow ; then making my 
necessary toilet, I reclined at full length, hoping 
for a quiet repose of a few hours. The bearers 
again under way, I was visited by the nocturnal god- 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. ' 149 

dess, though I could not say with the poet " Kind 
nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep,''^ the state I was 
in being little entitled to the appellation " sleep," and 
still less to that of " balmy." Once I was aroused by 
inhaling an odor quite foreign to the spicy land of 
Ind. A breeze had sprung up, and my torch-man 
had taken shelter under the leeward of my palanquin, 
giving me an opportunity of quaffing the fumes of 
burning cotton and rancid oil. Having intimated to 
him, in very decided terms, that he must leave that 
locality, he trotted ahead, while I relapsed into ray 
former repose, from which I was again awakened by a 
dream which was "not all a dream," to wit that I 
was again doubling the Capo of Storms. "When a 
little aroused, I called for information respecting the 
very disagreeable motion of the conveyance, when I was 
told that a new man had taken hold. T requested the 
maistry to defer all experiments of apprentices until 
some other person (or thing) was their traveller than 
myself. My request was heeded, and again all went 
smoothly onward. 

After journeying a few miles further, the maistry 
was at my elbow with the intelligence that we were 
near a river, the water of which was deep, and that we 
might find some difficulty in crossing. 

Such interruptions are not uncommon in that 
land of drought and torrent. That which now pre- 
sents to the eye but an extended waste of arid sand, 
becomes in a few days the bed of a navigable stream. 
At these times the journeyer does best to trust himself 



150 INDIA. 

to the judgment and experience of his bearers, instead 
of himself directing what shall be done. When the 
water is very high and the current strong, prudence 
dictates a patient delay upon the bank till the " river 
runs by," which it sometimes does in a few hours, 
especially if the monsoon have not fully set in. In other 
cases the course is adopted which was pursued in the 
present instance. The torch-bearer went ahead into the 
middle of the stream, holding his flambeau above him 
in one hand, while with the other he carried a long 
pole, cautiously measuring the water's depth just 
before him. After finding that the river was fordable, 
he returned and reported to the maistry, who directed 
one-half of the men to place the bottom of the palan- 
quin (cooly like) upon their heads, and the other 
merely to walk near their fellows, that they might be 
at hand in case of danger. Thus we entered the river 
cautiously, slowly, with just enough of the " ho ho" 
not to let courage fail or spirits flag. Deeper and 
still deeper sunk the bearers, and nearer to my per- 
son approached the rapid waves. 1 looked ahead 
and there was the mussalchee, his light borne aloft, 
and his turbaned head just appearing above the 
surface of the water. I thought much, but said 
nothing. At the moment in which it seemed that 
another step downward would have brought the 
raging stream into my vehicle, I felt a slight elevation. 
The danger was past, cheerful sounds were again 
heard from the men, and with buoyant steps I was 
carried safely to the opposite bank, hardly less pleased 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 151 

at my arrival than when the mussuli boat landed me 
on the sandy beach of Madras. 

The bearers placed the palanqum upon the ground, 
"to allow themselves a little rest after their tiresome 
march, while the maistry made his appearance, in 
their behalf, at my door with a low salaam, which was 
answered by a commendation of their skill and an in- 
timation that a more valuable expression of my good 
will was in store for them. With a few other inter- 
ruptions, which I will not weary the reader by narrat- 
ing, we reached the village of S. at sunrise, having 
been twelve hours running forty miles, including the 
delay in crossing the river. Reaching the bungalow, 
I very happily found it unoccupied, and therefore had 
the suite of rooms to myself. My palanquin was 
brought within, so as to be sheltered from sun and rain. 
My bearers having received the means of purchasing a 
sheep, and thus enjoying an extra dish of curry, were 
dismissed for the day, with directions to be at the door 
before sunset. I threw myself upon a cot — with one 
or more of which, and a table and chairs, these cara- 
vanseries are furnished, and seized a little rest, while 
tea, toast and eggs were in course of preparation for 
my breakfast. So much for a night's excursion in a 
palanquin, which although, as before suggested, very 
lonely and very distasteful to many, is of eminent uti- 
lity in a land where stage coaches, canajs and rail- 
roads are unknown. 

The ton-jon is a conveyance much used in the cities 
and large towns of India for shopping, calling, and 



152 INDIA. 

evening airings. It resembles the palanquin in having 
a pole of three and a half feet length before and behind, 
and in being carried by bearers. In the form of the 
body, and in its rising and falling top, it is like the 
chaise, the seat being only of sufficient size for one 
adult. The sides are left open, but are provided 
with extended brass wires, upon which are hung cur- 
tains of green silk that may be drawn at pleasure. 
It is light and airy — suited only for short distances, 
as the posture is upright instead of reclining. 

The value of a palanquin varies from fifty to a hun- 
dred dollars ; and that of a ton-jon from thirty to 
seventy-five dollars, according to their size and ele- 
gance of finish. The Avealthy, and those in high offi- 
cial station, retain a set of bearers for their personal 
use — the expense for eight persons (enough for short 
distances and with no baggage,) being about $20 per 
month, housing and feeding themselves. When not 
needed in carrying the vehicle they run upon errands, 
pull the punkah, assist the ayah in amusing the chil- 
dren, watch the premises, introduce visitors, and the 
like employments of which the foreign resident has 
sufficient to engage many attendants. 

In Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, almost every con- 
ceivable mode of conveyance is in use among the 
various classes of inhabitants. Take your position 
at six o'clock in the evening (the hour for Indian 
drives,) at some prominent point upon the thoroughfare 
of either of the above-named cities, and the scenes you 
witness will alternately awaken your admiration and 



HINDOO LAND CONVEYANCES. 153 

excite a smile. Here comes a carriage " Europe- 
built" — well proportioned and highly though tastefully 
ornamented — four native troopers are riding ahead to 
clear the way — postillions are mounted upon magnifi- 
cent Arabian steeds, with other attendants running at 
the side with ornamented dress and glittering spear. 
"Within is the Grovernor or Chief Justice — high in rank 
and authority among the foreign residents. There 
goes a plain, substantial carriage, drawn by a pair of 
strong though not showy horses, also of Arabian ori- 
gin — the reins in the hands of an English gentleman, 
who is taking his family to breathe the invigorating 
sea air after a day's confinement within his house or 
office. This again, is a civilian or one of the highei 
class of commission merchants, and his sallow counte- 
nance indicates that his constitution cannot much 
longer endure the demands made upon it by his daily 
seclusion, cares and fatigue. There go two young 
men, boys almost, in military costume, upon animals 
they can hardly manage, dashing along at a break- 
neck pace, laughing, bowing, and attracting not a lit- 
tle attention from passers-by. These are cadets just 
from shipboard — graduates at Addiscombe, and sent 
to India to make their fortune. One of two destinies 
is before them — either they will find an early grave in 
that strange land, or, if they pass unscathed through 
the ordeal of griifinage, and have time and disposition 
to profit by experience, they will become eminent and 
useful. 

But look again — yonder approaches a hackery, 



154 INDIA. 

drawn by a lank animal, which has seen all the ser- 
vice that should be demanded, but is doomed to spend 
its last days in drawing those East Indians, or foreign 
sailors from place to place — to see— be seen— and en- 
joy their rude life. 

"What a beautiful palanquin that is, coming. The 
bearers, how well dressed, and their spears how 
bright and gaily tasseled ! Within is a wealthy 
Hindoo, who owns his millions of rupees, and lives 
in Eastern luxury. And that ton-joti — how light 
and airy. There is an Ayah and child — the mother 
is in the carriage that just went by. Standing at this 
point, what a strange and motley mixture of persons 
and vehicles. People of every hue, dress, and grade 
and business — civil, military and commercial — Eng- 
lish, European and native — honored, respected and 
despised — eminent, indifferent and ignoble — drawn by 
horses from Arabia, Cape, Pegu, Acheen — in coaches, 
buggies, drays, carts — carried in palanquins and ton- 
jons — all upon the same general errand of breathing 
the delicious sea breeze, and thus preparing for the 
evening's repast and a night's rest. 

In the up-country stations, the same may be wit- 
nessed though on a smaller scale. 



CHAPTER XI. 

HINDOO LITERATURE. 

Languages of India — Antiquity of the Sanscrit — The Vedas — Shastras 
— Pooranas — Ramayanum, Analysis of, and Quotation from the Poem 
— Remark by Dr. Duff — Institutes of Menu, and other Works on 
Hindoo Jurisprudence — Ethics — Extracts from the Cural and Ovviyar 
— Miscellaneous Proverbs — Puncha tantrakathy — Moothory — Nan- 
nery — Nalladiyar — Hindoo Poetry. 

India abounds with languages, there being not less 
than eighteen in habitual use throughout the Peninsula. 
In the provinces which constitute Northern Hindoos- 
tan, we find the Kashmeeree, and Khasee or Pur- 
buttee ; — in Hindoostan Proper, are the Punjaubee, 
Hindostanee, Sindee, Mahrattee, Kuchee, G-oojratee, 
Runghee, Bundulkundee, Moogadkee, Bengalee, and 
Bhootiya ; — in the Deccan, the Mahrattee, Grondee, 
Teloogoo, Oorya, and Canarese ; while in Southern 
India, are the Canarese, Teloogoo, Malayalim and 
Tamul, which last is also vernacular among the in- 
habitants of North Ceylon. Had these languages a 
common origin, if so, what was it ? are questions 



156 INDIA. 

whicli have engaged a large share of attention, from 
men of letters in England and on the Continent. 

Adelung, an eminent oriental scholar, asserts with 
much confidence, that " the Sanscrit may be con- 
sidered, with the exception of a few mountain dialects, 
as the parent of all Indian languages, from the Indus 
to the farthest part of Arracan, and from Cape Comorin 
to Chinese Tartary." To this opinion Halhed, Sir 
William Jones, Colebrooke, Rev. Dr. Carey, and other 
oriental scholars have expressed their assent. While 
there is much to favor such a sentiment in regard to 
the languages of the north, the proof is not equally 
conclusive respecting those of the extreme south. It 
is supposed by some oriental scholars that the " Tamul 
is the original source of the Malayalim, Canarese, 
Teloogoo, Mahrattee, and Oorya, it being known to 
have attained a highly finished form some time prior 
to the introduction of the Brahminical system, though, 
together with other dialects, having since received a 
large admixture of Sanscrit." 

But, though denying to the Sanscrit the undoubted 
right of being the root of which the other Indian lan- 
guages are the branches ; or the fountain of which 
these are the streams, most justly does it claim the 
homage of high antiquity. The Hindoo gives to it a 
Divine origin, and calls it Deva-JVag-an, the " writing 
of the dods." This is no matter of surprise when we 
see that it is the depository of his religion, and organ 
of the national institutes ; for it is entirely natural 
for a people like the Hindoos, to attribute a celestial 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 15T 

character to that which is the medium of conveying 
the Divine will, especially if it have much of intrinsic 
excellence to command admiration and homage. 

Sir "WUliam Jones speaks of it as " of wonderful 
structure, more perfect than Grreek, more copious than 
Latin, and more exquisitely perfect than either," in 
which high eulogium Halhed, Talboys, Adelung, and 
others fully concur. Though long since disused in 
all parts of the country, it retains a large place in the 
veneration of the people. 

The dialects of the various hill tribes are still, for 
the greater part, distinct from the others, and have no 
written character. 

Waiving farther remarks upon the Indian lan- 
guages in general, I proceed to illustrate the subjects 
of which they are the honored vehicle. 

Foremost in the vast array of Indian literature 
stand those ancient, voluminous, and sacred writings, 
the Vedas. 

These are regarded as an immediate revelation from 
heaven, and as containing all that man needs to know 
respecting the character of God, and His claims upon 
the rational world. 

The term is derived from the Sanscrit Ved, (the 
law,) and includes four classes of works, of which the 
first is called the Rig-Veda, and treats of the first 
cause of all beings and things, the creation of matter, 
the formation of the world, of angels and the soul, 
rewards, punishment, corruption, and sin. 

The second, or Yajur- Veda contains instructions re- 



158 INDIA. 

specting religious exercises, the castes, feasts, purifi- 
cations, gifts, building of temples, ceremonies at birth, 
marriage, and death, and of the kind of animals re- 
quired in sacrifice. 

The third, or Sama-Veda, comprises hymns in 
praise of the Supreme Being, and to the honor of sub- 
ordinate deities. 

The fourth, or Atharvan-Veda which treats of 
mystic theology and metaphysics, is supposed by some 
to be of less authority than the preceding three, from 
this circumstance, among others, that while they are 
derived successively from the fire, air, and sun, this 
last has no such important parentage. 

These four classes are regarded as the fountain of 
all true religion, and the primeval sources of every 
other species of useful knowledge. They are believed 
by the community at large to have proceeded direct 
and entire out of the mouth of the Creator himself, 
and therefore as challenging the most implicit faith 
and profoundest reverence. When the various portions 
of the universe, the gods and men, were issuing from 
the different parts of the body of Brahma, these holy 
works, fairly and fully written, dropped from his four 
mouths. After meeting with sundry disasters by 
falling into the sea and like places of danger from 
which a miracle alone saved them, they were finally 
placed in the hands of Yyasa and other learned men 
to methodize and arrange, and from them have they 
come to our day. 

liOt a single quotation illustrate the character of 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 159 

these works. It is taken from the third or Sama- 
Veda :— 

" Possessed of innumerable heads, innumerable eyes, 
innumerable feet — Brahm fills the heavens and earth, 
he is whatever was, whatever will be, his command 
is as the water of life, he is the source of universal 
motion, he is the light of the moon, the sun, the fire, 
the lightning. The Veda is the breath of his nostrils, 
the primary elements are his sight, the agitation of 
human affairs is his laughter, his sleep is the destruc- 
tion of the universe. In different forms he cherishes 
the creatures ; in the form of air he preserves them, in 
the form of water he satisfies them, in the form of the 
sun he assists them in the affairs of life, and in that 
of the moon he refreshes them in sleep, the progres- 
sion of time forms his footsteps, all the gods to him 
are as sparks of fire. To him I bow, I bow." 

These sacred hymns are arranged in metre, and 
sung with much taste and melody. 

Sir "William Jones fixes the date of the Vedas at 
1500 years before the birth of Christ, which Mr. Cole- 
brooke and others consider as far too modern a period. 
After long and arduous efforts, a complete collection 
of these sacred books has been found and now lies in 
the British Museum ; bound in eleven folio volumes. 

Parts of these treatises have been translated into 
the English and Continental languages, but the ob- 
scurity of their style, the obsolete dialect in which 
they are composed, their voluminousness, and the 
comparatively limited interest taken in the study and 



160 INDIA. 

reading of such subjects, will probably prevent for 
years, and perhaps for ever, a full translation of their 
contents. 

Extracts from the Vedas have been made, and may 
be found in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society," 
" Ward's View of the Hindoos," Colebrooke's Essay," 
and other works on the East. 

Next in importance to the Vedas the various Shas- 
iras hold a place. Rishes and sages are their authors, 
and their themes less sacred than those of the Vedas. 
These teach respectively the science of architecture, 
law and logic, moral philosophy, astrology, and medi- 
cine. Being the great books of Hindoo science, they 
are used in schools and colleges, and present a for- 
midable array of metaphysics, morals, and philosophy, 
*' falsely so called." 

Next in order of importance are the Pooranas, 
which are in Hindoo literature what the Vedas are in 
theology, and the Shastras in science. They are my- 
thological poems and of great popularity and interest 
the nation over. Under this title are arranged those 
gigantic poems Bhag-avata, a history of Vishnu who 
bore that surname, the Mahabharat, an epic poem 
of more than 100,000 slokas or couplets, the subject 
of which is the history of a race of beings descended 
from the great Bharata, who was banished the city 
Hastinapad, and wandered about a long time in misery ; 
but at length, by the assistance of Krishna, regained 
his crown and re-enjoyed prosperity. It is compared 
for its beauty, to a deep and noble forest, abounding 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 161 

in delicious fruits and fragrant flowers, shaded and 
watered by perennial springs. 

Last named, but first in public esteem, is the 
Ramayana, the work of the poet Yalmiki, in the 
introduction to which it is said that, " He who sings 
and hears this poem continually, has attained to the 
highest state of enjoyment, and will finally be equal 
to the gods." 

The great celebrity of this work, and the complete- 
ness with which it exhibits the strength of oriental 
genius, induces me to lay before the reader an outline 
of the poem, and an extract from its voluminous pages. 
" At different times, Bhoodeir or the earth is repre- 
sented as oppressed with monsters and demons. Un- 
able any longer to bear their enormities, she enters 
the presence of Vishnu, entreats his interposition, and 
receives his promise that he will become incarnate and 
destroy her enemies. Hence the many incarnations of 
that second of the Triad, as fish — tortoise — boar — man- 
lion — and an ox. After describing these six incarnate 
forms of Vishnu, the author proceeds to the seventh 
as Rama, son of Dusarutha, king of Oude. His wife is 
born a princess, and in process of time they are united 
in marriage. His father Dusarutha becomes old and 
infirm, and wishes Rama to take the reins of govern- 
ment into his hands. Rama replies, ' It cannot be — 
I have not been born for such a worldly purpose as 
this. I must call my wife Seeta, along with me, we 
must reside like ascetics in the desert, and it will 
presently transpire for what purpose I appear among 



162 INDIA. 

men.' He does so. They build a hermitage, and 
spend their time amongst the beasts of the forest. 
The giant Ravenna, king of Lunka in Ceylon — the 
monster with ten heads, and as many arms, and to 
destroy whom it is the design of the incarnation, 
hears this intelligence, and is determined, in the 
struggle, to give Rama as much trouble as he can. 
Having the power of changing his form, he assumes 
that of an ascetic, and whilst Rama is absent from 
the hermitage, he appears at the door, and entreats 
Seeta to give him alms. When approaching to bestow 
the bounty desired, he seizes, carries her off, and puts 
her in prison. On returning to the hermitage, Rama 
cannot find his wife, sinks into a sea of grief, utters 
the most piteous cries, and passes through those deep 
emotions of sorrow which characterize Eastern nations. 
To assist him in his conflict with the giants, the 
angels are represented as becoming incarnate in 
monkeys, and Hunumunta is their leader. As the 
latter is worshipped in every town and almost every 
village of India, it is evident that he is a deity of no 
small consequence. Finding Rama in a state of de- 
spondency, he becomes his prime minister, and under- 
takes to visit Lunka and find out the circumstances of 
Seeta. He assumes the form of a rat, and pursues his 
circuitous route through the houses of the enemy, till 
he discovers the prison where Seeta is confined. Like 
a faithful servant ho delivers to her the message of his 
master, and receives from Seeta her answers in return. 
After having emerged from the prison, he assumes his 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 163 

proper form — is seen scampering over the walls and 
houses — and excites much alarm among the giants in 
Lunka. Whether his visit was an omen of good or 
evil they could not understand. At length they 
seized him as a prisoner, and brought him to the 
court of Ravenna to be examined. As they would 
not give him a seat, but compelled him to stand, 
he took his tremendous tail, and coiled it, cable- 
like, till it rose to such a height as enabled him to 
sit down on an equality with the throne of Ravenna. 
In reply to the question put to him by the king re- 
specting his name, parentage, design in visiting Lunka, 
&c., he gave such shrewd and ingenious answers, that 
he sets the whole court in bursts of laughter against 
the sovereign. Ravenna is frantic with rage, and asks 
what is to be done with this monkey ? Some proposed 
one thing, and some another ; but all agreed in the 
suggestion, that he made such a boast of his tail, that 
it ought to be set on fire. Accordingly, all the old 
clothes, the rags, and paper to be found in Lunka, are 
put in requisition, to make a flambeau of this tail. They 
cover it with tar and pitch, and other combustibles — 
set it on fire — and then liberate the prisoner, that they 
may have a day of frolic. No sooner does Hunumunta 
regain his liberty, than he commences a race — now 
through the fields of corn, and sets them on fire — then 
through the farm-yards and over the hay-ricks, and 
puts them in a blaze — then over the walls and through 
the houses, and kindles a fire which is not easily ex- 
tinguished. Never did such an incendiary visit Lunka 



164 INDIA. 

before. To save their city from destruction, the giants 
now pursue him to put out the torch which they had 
lighted. Hunumunta ascends the tower of a temple, 
and hides himself in its summit ; and when he finds 
it well filled with giants, he throws it down with vio- 
lence, and destroys them all. He makes his escape — 
dips his tail in the sea — and returns to Rama. After 
reporting the exploits of his embassy, they assemble 
an army of monkeys — throw a bridge across the sea 
(gulf of Manaar) from the Continent to Ceylon — and 
lay siege to the fortress of Ravenna. The war is com- 
menced, and prodigies of valor are performed on both 
sides, till Rama kills the monster Ravenna, liberates 
his wife Seeta, and delivers the earth from the giants, 
whose enormities cause her to groan." Such is an out- 
line of this famous epic ; but the poetry, figures, and 
illustrations are not to be translated. There is no de- 
scribing the intense interest with which the millions 
listen to the recitation of this Poem by the bards who 
wander up and down the country. The first time I 
witnessed this scene was in the city of Madura, when 
passing through a wide street, in company with the 
Rev. Mr. Cherry. There was a large pandal built in 
front of the dwelling, beneath which sat the reader, 
upon an ornamented mat ; lamps above, attendants at 
his side, and thousands crowding the street before him. 
We stopped to listen, and though we could understand 
but little, yet the melody of his voice, the distinctness 
of his enunciation, and the force of his recitation, pro- 
duced an impression, even upon us, not to be effaced. 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 1&5 

Add to this an understanding of the sentiment, and an 
appreciation of the style, and no wonder that the mul- 
titude of half-clad and illiterate Hindoos sat entranced 
with wonder and admiration, while the moments sped 
as on eagle's wings. 

"While, as before remarked, there is no conveying to 
those of another nation and language the beauties 
which a Hindoo sees in this Poem, I shall venture to 
insert a few lines as illustrative of its more pathetic 
style. 

When Dusarutha was told by Rama that he would 
not gratify his wishes in the matter of succeeding 
him upon the throne of Oude, but must retire to a 
forest, the old man protested against his daughter's 
accompanying him. Under these circumstances she 
addressed her husband in the following most dutiful 
and affectionate manner : 

Son of the venerable parent ! hear, 

'Tis Seeta speaks. Say, art thou not assur'd 

That to each being his allotted time 

And portion, as his merit, are assign'd, 

And that a wife her husband's portion shares ? 

Therefore, with thee this forest lot I claim. 

A woman's bliss is found, not in the smile 

Of father, mother, friend, or in herself : 

Her husband is her only portion here, 

Her heaven hereafter. If thou indeed, 

Depart this day into the forest drear, 

I will precede and smooth the thorny way. 

chide me not ; for where the husband is, 

Within the palace, on the stately car, 



166 INDIA. 

Or wandering in the air, in every state, 

The shadow of his feet is her abode. 

My mother and my father having left, 

I have no dwelling-place distinct from tnee. 

Forbid me not. For as a gay recluse. 

On thee attending, happy shall I feel. 

Within this honey-scented grove to roam, 

For thou, e'en here can'st nourish and protect ; 

And therefore other friend I cannot need. 

A residence in heaven, Raghuvu, 

Without thy presence would no joy afford. 

Therefore, though rough the path, I must, I will, 

The forest penetrate, the wild abode 

Of monkeys, elephants, and playful fawn. 

Pleased to embrace thy feet, I will reside 

In the rough forest, as my father's house. 

Void of all other wish, supremely thine. 

Permit me this request — I will not grieve — 

I will not burden thee — refuse me not, 

But shouldst thou, Raghuvvi, this prayer deny. 

Know, I resolve on death — if torn from thee. 

Thus much upon the Vedas, Puranas, and Shastras. 
Their characteristics are number, antiquity, and bulk ; 
upon the last feature of which I shall quote the lan- 
guage of Dr. DufF: 

" The iEneid of Yirgil extends to about twelve thou- 
sand lines, the Iliad of Homer to double that number ; 
but the Ramayana of Yalmiki rolls on to a hundred 
thousand, while the Mahabharat of Vyasa quadruples 
even that sum ! Many of the other sacred books ex- 
hibit a voluminousness quite as amazing. The four 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 167 

Vedas, when collected, form eleven huge octavo vo- 
lumes, while the Puranas extend to about two millions 
of lines ! In one of these it is gravely asserted, on di- 
vine authority, that originally the whole series of 
Puranas alone consisted of one hundred kolis, or a 
thousand millions of stanzas ; but as four hundred 
thousand of these were considered sufficient for the 
instruction of man, the rest were reserved for the gods. 
Well might Sir William Jones say, " Wherever we 
direct our attention to Hindoo literature, the notion of 
infinity presents itself; and sure the longest life would 
not suffice for a single perusal of works that rise and 
swell, protuberant like the Himalayahs, above the 
bulkiest compositions of every land beyond the confines 
of India." 

Next in order are works on the subject of Jurispru- 
dence^ among which the Institutes of Menu occupy a 
place altogether pre-eminent. The author is " known 
in the Puranas as the son of Brahma and one of the 
progenitors of mankind." His Institutes, in twelve 
volumes, though inferior to the Yedas in antiquity, ara 
held to be equally sacred ; and, owing to their being 
more closely united with the business of life, have 
tended much to mould the opinions of the Hindoos. 
Sir William Jones places the publication of these ordi- 
nances about 880 B. C. The work has been translated 
by the great Orientalist, and published once and again 
in London and Calcutta, 

The Law-books of India, or Smritee Shastras, as 
they are called, are very numerous. In addition to 



168 INDIA. 

many which have been lost, there are now extant 
seven works on the duties of kings, thirty on inheri- 
tance, seventy-five relative to the Canon Laws, tiventy 
on offerings to the manes of ancestors, and above 
ninety on vows, oaths, marriages, and various other 
subjects pertaining to private welfare and the public 
good. These Smritees contain eighteen titles of law, 
which are declared to be the " ground- work of all judi- 
cial procedure in this world." I would close what 
might be illustrated at greater length respecting the 
law books of India, with the important enactment 
that " the preservation of the kingdom from thieves, 
or vigilance in punishing theft, secures Paradise to the 
magistrate." 

The literature of the lan-d abounds with volumes on 
ethics and casuistry, variously expressed in the lan- 
guage of poetry, proverb, fables, narrative, and didactic 
counsel. 

While many of the sentiments contained in these 
works are greatly defective, and in some cases ruinous 
in their practical tendency, it must be admitted- that 
very much is true, and worthy of commendation and 
practice. At the head of this class of authors stands 
Tiruvullavar, deemed an incarnation of wisdom, to 
whom the Hindoos are indebted for that extraordinary 
production, the Curat. Though more than fifteen 
hundred years old, this rare collection of precepts, 
conveyed in the style of unequalled poetry, has lost 
none of its original favor among the people. In one 
hundred and thirty-three chapters it treats of almost 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 169 

every variety of subjects pertaining to the relations 
and duties of life, forming a text-book of indisputable 
authority. Portions of this work have been translated 
into English by several oriental scholars, from one of 
which, made by Mr. Ellis of the Madras civil service, 
I have selected the following stanzas, by which the 
reader may form an opinion of the whole production : 

As ranked in every alphabet the first, 
The selfsame vowel stands, so in all worlds 
The Eternal God is chief. 

Of virtue void, as is the palsied sense, 

The head must ba, that bows not at his feet, 

Whose eight-fold attributes pervade the world. 

As the hook rules the elephant, so he 
In wisdom firm his earthly passions rule 
Who hopes to flourish in the soil of heaven. 

' No greater gain than virtue canst thou know, 
Than virtue to forget no greater loss. 



Refer not virtue to another day ; 
Receive her now, and at thy dying hour 
She'll prove thy never-dying friend. 

Know that is virtue which each ought to do, 
What each should shun is vice. 

8 ^ ■ 



170 INDIA. 

If love and virtue be thy constant guests 
Domestic life is blest, and finds in these 
Its object and reward. 

Before their scornful foes 

Bold as a lion those dare never walk, 

Whose fame is sullied by their wives' base deeds. 

Of all the world calls good, no good exists 
Like that which wise and virtuous offspring give 
I know no greater good. 

Sweet is the pipe, and sweet the lute they say. 
They who have never heard their children's tongues 
In infant prattle lisp. 

What bolt can love restrain ? What veil conceal ; 
One tear-drop in the eye of those thou lovest, 
Will draw a flood from thine. 

To honor guests with hospitable rite, 
Domestic life with all its various joys 
To man was given. 

Though courtesy rejoice the heart, yet words 
Of kindness which dress the face in smiles 
Wni more avail. 

Discourteous speech when courteous may be used^ 
Is like the sickly appetite which culls 
^ruit immature, leaving the ripe untouched. 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 171 

Small as a grain of millet 

Though it be, large as the towering palm 

A benefit to grateful eyes appears. 

Though every virtue by his hand expire 
Yet may he live ; but by the stroke he dies, 
When murdered gratitude before him falls. 

That virtue which in all relations holds 
Unchangeable its nature, that alone 
Deserves the name of justice. 

It is the glory of the just to stand, 
Like the adjusted balance, duly poised 
Nor swerve to either side. 

Though unrestrained all else, restrain thy tongue, 
For those degraded by licentious speech 
Will rue their tongues' offence. 

The wound may heal, though from a burning brand, 
And be forgotten, but the wound ne'er heals 
A burning tongue inflicts. 

As vehicles for the conveyance of ethical precepts, 
proverbs are very popular among the people of India, 
and form an important part of the national literature. 
Before me is a volume containing nearly two thou- 
sand of these concise and pithy sentences, many of 
them having their origin in the wisdom of remote an- 
tiquity, but retaining a place in daily usage the country 



172 INDIA. 

over. From this volume I have selected the following, 
as illustrative of the class : 

If taken to excess even nectar is poison. 

The crow imitating the gait of the swan, lost even its own. 

Ambrosia at the tip of the tongue, hut poison at the root. 

To the timorous, the atmosphere is filled with demons. 

If distant, even enemies are friends. 

Is it difficult for one to swin a tank, who has swam a river 1 

When the elephant is given, shall a dispute ensue about the 
goad } 

Does the hand that has caressed the elephant, caress the 
sheep } 

It will happen in its time — it will go in its time. 

Is the fold to be placed where the sheep may wish .'' 

Though you go a begging, go decently attired. 

If on entering you are obliged to swim, how will you reach 
the opposite shore ? 

Bullets do not fly in your battles. 

Though a little bird soar high, will it become a kite .'' 

Is he a friend who helps not in adversity .? 

Your friendship is sincere, it is true — ^yet do not put your 
hand in my sack. 

Are all men, men ? or are all stones, rvMes 1 

Are we not to milk when there is a cow .'' 

No one knows all things, and no one but knows something. 

Is it necessary to add acid to the lemon ? 

The flower which is out of reach is dedicated to Grod. 

No matter what becomes of others' affairs, attend to your 
own. 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 173 

Though a man may remove to the distance of fifty miles, 
his sin is still with him. 

If one only knows the matter it is a secret, if two it is 
public. 

Learn even to thieve, hnt forget it. 

What the eye has seen, the hand may do. 

If the ass be beaten with a bundle of sugar-cane, will he 
thereby taste its sweetness .'' 

Time passes away, but sayings remain. 

Winnow while there is wind, and turn the mill while there 
is sugar-cane. 

Of what use can the news of the country be to a frog in a 
well .? 

Even the monkey thinks its own young precious as gold. 

A guilty breast is always agitated. 

Will the barking dog catch game } 

When faults are scrutinized, relationships cease. 

It is easier to procure eight oxen, than to find one that has 
strayed. 

Infatuation precedes destruction. 

They who give, have all things ; those who withhold, have 
nothing. 

Truth will conquer, but falsehood will kill. 

Even a small rush may be of use as a tooth-pick. 

Taxes and gruel will continually grow thicker. 

The effect of moral action will terminate on the actor. 

A demon will laugh at a destructive thought. 

The fellow walks on foot, but his words are in a palankeen. 

The deeds of a bad man will burn himself. 

He is most eloquent, when none is found to dispute. 



174 INDIA. 

A swan in his own, and a crow in a foreign country. 

While we meditate one thing, God determines another. 

Marry the daughter on knowing the mother. 

Friction removes not the scent of the sandal wood. 

Favors silence the tongue. 

To roast a crab, and set a fox to guard it. 

A dog is courageous — in his own kennel. 

Will there be smoke where there is no fire ? 

To destroy an enemy make friendship with him. 

His rank entitles him to a palankeen, but he has no strength 
to enter it. 

First at the feast, and last at the battle field. 

Insanity has left me — bring the rice pounder, that I may 
gird myself. 

Did ever any one become poor by giving alms .'' 

Desert not old friends for new ones. 

Will the young of the tiger be without claws ^ 

Taciturnity makes no blunders. 

Forbearance is stronger than the ocean. 

Even the blind may shoot — if a mountain be the target. 

A prudent youth is better than an old fool. 

When a dog barks against a mountain, which is injured, 
the dog, or the mountain ? 

Stumbling is the excuse of a lame horse. 

Can he that prospers not by truth, succeed by lies ? 

There is no flower that insects will not visit. 

The greatest enmity is preferable to uncertain friendship. 

The dam must be made before the flood comes. 

No one was ever ruined by speaking the truth. 



HINDOO LITERATURE, 175 

Under the general head of ethical literature we find 
several fabulous iporks, in v>rhich the adventures and 
discourses of animals are narrated with a view to the 
entertainment and instruction of the people. By far 
the most popular of this class is a volume entitled the 
Panchata7itrakathy, being a systematic arrangement 
of fables, or apologues, arranged after the style of 
iEsop, and found in all the languages of the country. 
The plan of the work is briefly this : in the city of 
Patilaputra, Sudarsana, the reigning king, had three 
adult sons, who seemed to vie with each other in 
coarseness of disposition and manners. The good prince, 
in great affliction, having convened his council, ad- 
dressed them thus : " What benefit is there in children 
who are neither learned nor virtuous ? or of what use 
is the feeding of the buffalo that never gives milk ? 
An unbecoming son is a digcomfort to the family. 
Youth, wealth, authority, and ignorance, are each of 
them a source of ruin ; and what will be the wretch- 
edness of him in whom all these four are united ? Is 
there a man to be found who will be able to regenerate 
my sons, who are born to have merely a name, and 
wander in the paths of error ?" 

The Brahmin Somajanma at once arose and offered 
his services to the king, being willing to undertake 
the reformation of the princes, and that within a few 
months. The offer was joyfully accepted, and the 
wayward youth put under his care. The Brahmin, 
with great patience and toil, succeeded at length in 
his enterprise, and subdued the habits of his royal 



176 INDIA. 

pupils ; and all through the medium of five principal 
fables, each embracing a greater number of subordi- 
nate ones. These fables compose the Pancha-t antra, 
or five points of industry. They are five romances, 
which are entitled instructive, although their morality 
is not very sound ; sometimes conducing to what is 
evil, rather than teaching the means of avoiding it. 
The first story explains how dexterous knaves contrive 
to sow divisions between best friends. The second 
teaches the advantage of true friends, and how they 
should be selected. The third explains how one is to 
destroy an adversary by artifice, when he cannot do 
it by force. The fourth shows how a man loses his 
property by misconduct, and the fifth exhibits the bad 
effects of thoughtlessness and precipitate decision. 
These narratives are so constructed as that one fable, 
before it is completed, gives rise to another, and that 
onward, to the close. It is impossible to determine the 
age of these fables, no authentic document of their era 
being extant. The Hindoos rank them among their 
oldest productions ; and the estimation in which they 
are held throughout the country is a proof of their an- 
tiquity. Their resemblance to the fables of ^sop is 
very close and striking, but whether either was debtor 
to the other, is a question involved in the deepest ob- 
scurity. Originally composed in verse, they have been 
translated into the language of every part of the Pen- 
insula ; and as a text-book in the daily schools of the 
land, exert a great influence in moulding the senti- 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 177 

ments, and thus forming the character of Hindoo 
youth. 

From a large class of proverbs with which these 
tales abound, the following are appropriate specimens : 

Courage is tried in war, integrity in the payment of debt 
and interest, the faithfulness of a wife in poverty, and friend- 
ship in distress. 

He who in your presence speaks kindly, but in your absence 
seeks to injure, must be rejected like a bowl of poison covered 
with milk. 

It can never be safe to unite with an enemy ; water, though 
heated, will still extinguish fire. 

A wise man will never be the leader of a party ; for if the 
affairs of the party be successful, all will be equally sharers, 
and if unsuccessful, the leader will alone be disgraced. 

He who removes another from danger, and he who removes 
terror from the mind, are the greatest of friends. 

The truly great are calm in danger, merciful in prosperity, 
eloquent in the assembly, courageous in war, and anxious for 
fame. 

Little things should not be despised ; many straws united 
may bind an elephant. 

He who seeks the company of the wise, shall himself be- 
come wise ; even glass inserted in gold partakes of its color. 

Truth, contentment, patience and mercy, belong to great 
minds. 

Happiness consists in the absence of anxiety. 

A gift bestowed with kind expressions, knowledge without 
pride, and power united to clemency, are rare but excellent. 

Every one looking downwards becomes impressed with the 
8* 



178 INDIA. 

idea of his own greatness ; but looking upwards feels his own 
littleness. 

A wise hearer is not affected by the speaker, but by the 
oration. 

The deceitful have no friends. 

It is the essence of riches to corrupt the heart. 

It was through these and like mediaj that the Hin- 
doo sages conveyed instruction to their pupils and 
readers respecting the manifold duties of life. While 
their thousands of pages contain much that is true 
and admirable, the value of their teachings is often 
impaired, and in some cases neutralized, by the ab- 
sence of a proper motive of moral conduct, the edifice 
being based on selfishness. This, however, is certain, 
that a habit of regarding the excellent counsel given 
respecting truth, integrity, benevolence, and virtue, 
would quite change the face of India society. 

I have also before me a small volume containing 
" Extracts from the writings of Tamul Moralists," 
compiled and published by a civilian of Madras, 
for the use of schools. From the first, entitled Moo- 
thoory, let two illustrations be drawn. " Consider 
not the smallness of a man's body : the sea is vast and 
all its water bad, while the little spring is pure and 
tasteful." " Imagine not that the brethren of your 
household will be, of course, your protectors ; disease 
born with you will destroy you, while the medicine in 
the far off and lofty mountain will be your cure and life." 

From the " Nannesi^ " An affectionate wife and 



HINDOO LITERATURE. 179 

her lord should perform their domestie duties without 
disagreement, even as both tho ejes look at the same 
object," " The worthy will rejoice at the approach of 
the good, and grieve at the sight of the wicked : on 
the approach of the south wind, the sweet mango-tree 
will put forth its tender leaves, but it will be troubled 
at the coming of the whirlwind. 

From the " NulvurleP " If people are ready to be 
liberal, like a milch cow giving out fresh milk, all the 
world will be their near relatives." 

From the " Nethlnarlvh-lvMiamP " The world are 
led according to the taste of the warrior king. 
"What else does the boat that is borne along the river 
current ?" "A man who, without malice, takes up 
and dwells upon the faults of others only to excite 
laughter, is like a man who would kill his neighbor 
that he might see his body quiver in death." 

Others might be added from Naladiyar, &c., but 
these must suffice. 

The Hindoo mind has ever been distinguished for 
brilliancy rather than depth and strength ; hence they 
have devoted more time to literature than science, and 
very much to poetry. The Abbe Du Bois remarks : 
" There is no country on earth where poetry was more 
in vogue than it was in former times in India. It 
seemed impossible for them to write but in verse. 
They have not a single ancient book that is written 
in prose ; not even the books on medicine, grammar, 
and the like matter-of-fact themes. All Hindoo books 
not in verse are modern ; at least it is so in regard to 



180 INDIA. 

the Tamul, Teloogoo, and Canarese, and so far as I 
can learn, the country over," 

Hindoo poetry, as we might infer from the intellec- 
tual and moral state of the nation, abounds in the most 
extravagant metaphors, and often very licentious 
images. As to the former feature, let a few instances 
suffice : 

" Your glory so far exceeds the splendor of the sun, 
that his services are no longer necessary," " Thou 
art the greatest of plunderers. Other thieves purloin 
property which is worthless : thou stealest the heart. 
They plunder in the night ; thou in the day," " That 
person has discharged his arrow with such force, that 
thought cannot pursue it," " If there had been no 
spots on the moon, his face might, perhaps, have borne 
a comparison with thine," 

A leading defect in their poems is, that the descrip- 
tions are too long and too minute. When describing 
a beautiful woman, they are never contented with 
drawing her likeness at a single stroke, as a European 
would do, but the writer must particularize the beauty 
of her eyes, forehead, nose, cheeks, and expatiate upon 
the color of her skin and her many ornaments, Not a 
part of her visible frame will escape his scrutiny and 
recital ; each will be represented in finished detail, 
often with great power of expression, but frequently 
much to the weariness of the reader. 



CHAPTER XII. 

SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 

The Hindoos not a barbarous People — Arithmetic — Geometry — Algebra 
— Trigonometry — Astronomy — Geography — Chronology — Natural 
Philosophy — Chemistry — Mineralogy — Botany — Geology — Doctors 
— Medical Institutions at Calcutta — Polytechnic Institutions — Law- 
yers — Present state of Learning in the land. 

Those of my readers who have been accustomed to 
regard the Hindoos as a semi-barbarous, illiterate 
people will have read, with some surprise, the state- 
ments and extracts of the preceding chapter, "Were 
more needful to correct this erroneous impression, the 
necessity would be fully supplied by an illustration of 
the past and present character of science in that land. 
The limits assigned to this volume require brevity 
upon these topics, though it is intended to say enough 
to justify an assigning to the natives of India a high 
rank in the world of letters. 

In all the sciences which contribute towards extend- 
ing our knowledge of nature in mathematics, mecha- 
nics, and astronomy, arithmetic is of elementary use. 



182 INDIA. 

I 

In whatever country, then, we find that such attention 
has been paid to the improvement of arithmetic as to 
lender its operations easy and correct, we may pre- 
sume that the sciences depending upon it have attained 
a proportional degree of perfection. Such improvement 
we find in India. While among the G-reeks and 
Romans, the only method used for the notation of 
numbers was by the letters of the alphabet, which ne- 
cessarily rendered arithmetical calculation extremely 
tedious and onerous, the Hindoos had, from time im- 
memorial, employed for the same purpose, the ten 
ciphers or figures, and by means of them performed 
every operation in arithmetic with the greatest facility 
and expedition. The Arabians, not long after their 
settlement in Spain, introduced this mode of notation 
into Europe, and were candid enough to acknowledge 
that they had derived the knowledge of it from the 
Hindoos." Arithmetic is one of the few studies pur- 
sued in all the schools of the land. It is almost 
wholly mental, the operations being performed with 
extraordinary facility and correctness. It is interest- 
ing to observe a palanquin-maistry, for example, 
replying to your question, "how much he will ask to 
carry you to a distant place ?" so many bearers — so 
many miles — so much for extras, &c. — he thinks, his 
lips move — a figure is noted upon the ground — again he 
thinks, and with less time than I have taken to write 
this sentence, he tells you the amount, and if his data 
be correct, you will find nothing wrong in the result. 



SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 183 

The Hindoos are, as a nation, very correct account- 
ants. 

About the year 1150, of the Christian era, a learned 
sage of India wrote a work, w^hich, in honor of his 
daughter, he called Lilavati. This volume contained 
treatises on arithmetic and geometry, and begins thus : 
" Having bowed to the Deity (G-anesa), whose head is 
like an elephant, whose feet are adored by gods, 
who, when called to mind, restores his votaries from 
embarrassment, and bestows happiness on his wor- 
shippers, I propound this easy process of computation, 
delightful by its elegance, perspicuous with words, con- 
cise, soft, and correct, and pleasing to the learned." 
The rules are then given in verse, and the language, 
when most technical, is often highly figurative. The 
geometrical part of this work contains the celebrated 
proposition that the square of the hypothenuse of a 
right-angled triangle is equal to the squares on the 
sides containing the triangle. And among other 
propositions the one which discovers the area of a trian- 
gle when the three sides are known, Greometry is not 
at present pursued in the common schools, and is but 
little understood among the most erudite of the land. 

The author of Lilavati wrote a learned system 
on algebra, which had great repute, and was 
translated into various eastern languages, and finally 
in the year 1813, into the English. Another Hindoo 
work on algebra, had for its author Arya Bhatta, who 
lived in or before the fifth century of the Christian 
era, and was almost as ancient as the Greek alge- 



184 INDIA. 

braist, Diophantus, though the Hindoo treats the 
science with a completeness far beyond the Grecian ; 
especially such points as the resolution of equa- 
tions containing several unknown quantities, resolv- 
ing indeterminate equations of at least the first de- 
gree, &o. Upon the question, " was the science of 
algebra known long before, and by what degrees of 
improvement did it advance, until the time of Arya 
Bhatta ?" there is a division of opinion, the late Pro- 
fessor Playfair contending that the science had a com- 
mencement prior to both Grecian and Hindoo, while 
Delambre and others give to these sages the credit 
of originating it. " It appears," says a modern 
writer, " from the Hindoo treatises on algebra, that 
they understood well the arithmetic of surd roots, the 
resolution of equations of the second degree, a general 
solution of indeterminate problems of the first degree, 
and a method of deriving a multitude of answers to 
problems of the second degree, when one solution was 
discovered by trial — which was as near an approach to 
a general solution as was made until the time of La- 
grange. They had not only applied algebra both to as- 
tronomy and geometry, but conversely applied geometry 
to the demonstration of algebraic rules." The ripe 
scholar and learned orientalist, Colebrooke has insti- 
tuted a comparison between the Hindoo and G-recian 
algebraist, and finds reason to conclude that, in several 
most important respects, the latter is very far behind 
the former. 

Trigonometry was also studied at a very early 



SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 185 

period, as appears from the Surya Siddhanta, which 
contain? a very rational view of this system. 

From motives of curiosity, usefulness, and religion, 
the heavenly bodies have secured the interested and 
earnest attention of the thoughtful in all ages and 
nations. The most ancient and universal of all 
sciences is astronomy. The history of its rise in any 
country can never be absolutely determined, since it 
goes back far beyond all recorded annals, and is lost 
in the darkness of antiquity. The Brahmin tells you, 
with all gravity, that this science was first made 
known to the people of his land, in a volume called 
the Surya Siddhanto, a divine revelation, received 
2,164,899 years ago. The learned Bailly was willing 
to allow that Hindoo astronomy had its origin more 
than 3000 years before Christ. Little was known of 
the state of this science in India until after the incur- 
sions by the Mohamedans. But during the last 
half century, much attention has been given to the 
subject by several English and French philosophers. 
It is impossible, in a work of this kind, to present a 
complete view of a subject so large, subtle, and scien- 
tific as this. With a few observations I must com- 
mend the reader to the History of British India, vol. 
iii. Chapter 13, Ward's Yiew, &c.. Part iii. sect. 
35, and the appendix of " Robertson's History, Par, 
Y. The latter writer says : "It may be consid- 
ered as the general result of all the inquiries, rea- 
sonings, and calculations, with respect to Hindoo as- 
tronomy, which have hitherto been made public, that 



186 INDIA. 

the motion of the heavenly bodies, and more particu- 
larly their position at the four epochs of 21st March, 
A. D. 638, 10th March, A. D. 1491, A. D. 1569, and 
one which extends back far before the Christian era, of 
which tables have with great labor been obtained, are 
ascertained with much accuracy ; and that many of the 
elements of their calculations, especially for remote 
ages, are verified by an astonishing coincidence with 
the tables of the modern astronomy of Europe, when 
improved by the latest and most nice deductions from 
the theory of gravitation. The Brahmins, who annually 
circulate a kind of almanac containing astronomical 
predictions of the more remarkable phenomena in the 
heavens — such as the new and full moons, eclipses of 
the sun and moon — are in possession of certain methods 
of calculation, which, upon examination, are found to 
involve in them a very extensive system of astronomical 
knowledge. But though skilled in the use of the 
rules contained in his treatise, the Brahmin has no ac- 
quaintance with the mode of their structure. Seated 
on the ground with his shells before him, he repeats 
the enigmatical verses which are to guide his calcula- 
tion, and from his little tablet of palm-leaves takes out 
the numbers that are to be employed in it, obtaining 
the result with great certainty and expedition." These 
tables have, as their threefold use, to compute the 
places of the sun and moon — to calculate the localities of 
the planets — and determine the positions of eclipses. It 
may be known to the reader that, according to the 
Vedas, the eclipses are occasioned by attacks upon the 



SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 187 

sun and moon by the monster Rahoo, because of a 
grudge he has against those orbs. It will not do for the 
Hindoo astronomer to declare that sentiment false, for 
it is found in a sacred book. He therefore avoids the 
difficulty by saying, that " certain things might have 
been so formerly, and may be so still ; but /or astro- 
nomical purposes, astronomical rules must be usedP 
And as to the teaching of the Shastras, that the earth , 
is supported upon the heads of monsters, &c., these are 
explained to mean the moon's nodes and latitude ; and 
thus an unity is preserved between the deductions of 
Science and the instructions of Revelation. 

There are several points of oneness between the as- 
tronomical systems of the eastern and western conti- 
nents. Both have distinguished that portion of the 
heavens in which the motions of the sun, moon, and 
planets are performed from the rest of the celestial 
sphere. There is an almost perfect identity between 
them in the number and names of the zodiacal signs. 
In both systems time is divided into periods of seven 
days (the Hindoos reckoning our Friday as their first 
day), and the ecliptic is divided into three hundred and 
sixty degrees. With these general remarks I must 
leave the interesting subject of Hindoo astronomy, ex- 
cept it be to say that astrology, a false branch of the 
noble science, is studied with much earnestness, great 
use being made of it for purposes of superstition — the 
"5^«r" under which an event occurred, having much 
to do with its successful or adverse progress and com- 
pletion. 



188 INDIA. 

A few sentences must suffice upon the science of 
Geography. " As nothing but actual observation 
could make the Hindoos acquainted, with the surface, 
contents, and dimensions of the globe, and as their laws 
and institutions discourage the disposition to travel, as 
well as the translation and perusal of the enquiries of 
other nations, they have therefore, in this department 
of knowledge, completely failed." According to the 
Puranas, " The earth is circular and flat, like the flower 
of the water-lily, in which the petals project toward 
each other. Its circumference is 4,000,000,000 miles. 
In the centre is Mount Soomeroo, ascending in height 
600,000 miles ; at the base 128,000 in circumference ; 
and 256,000 wide at the top. On this mountain are 
three peaks formed of gold, pearls and precious stones, 
where Vishnu, Siva, Indru, Ugnee, Yumu, and other 
deities, reside. The clouds ascend to about one-third 
of its height, while at its base are the mountains 
Munduru, Sundhu-madunu, Yipoolu, and Sooparshwu; 
on each of which grows a tree 8,800 miles high. On 
each side of the mountain are several countries, divided 
by ranges of mountains, the furthermost of which is 
bounded by the salt sea. Beyond this sea are six other 
seas — the sea of sugar-cane juice, of spirituous liquors, 
of clarified butter, of curds, of milk, and of sweet water, 
each surrounding a separate continent ; beyond all 
which, is a country of gold as large as the rest of the 
earth ; then a circular chain of mountains ; and then 
the land of darkness, or hell. Grunga, proceeding from 
the foot of Yishnu, fell on Soomeroo ; from thence on 



SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 189 

Mount Vishkhumbu ; and thence on the head of Meha- 
Deou ; and thence divided into four large streams of 
great sanctity. If any one, though overwhelmed with 
sin, hear the name of Grunga (G-anges), or desire, be- 
hold, and touch this goddess, or bathe in her stream, 
taste of her waters, pronounce her name, call her to 
recollection, or extol her merits, he instantly becomes 
holy, and ascends to the heavens of the gods. When 
the sun, in its annual course, continues for six months 
in the northern hemisphere, the gods on Mount Soomeroo 
enjoy its rays, of which they are deprived when it 
passes to the southern hemisphere ; hence the doctrine 
that one year of mortals is equivalent to a night and 
day of the gods. In the centre of the globe is Patalu, 
where the darkness is dispelled by the splendor which 
issues from the pearly heads of the hydras. There the 
Usoorus and hydras remain ; there the daughters of the 
hydras, of exquisite beauty, sport with each other ; 
and there reside the immortals, enjoying the splendor 
of their own forms, brilliant as gold." The reader 
rightly judges that this description has little to com- 
mend it beyond the ingenuity of its imaginative author. 
The system of Hindoo Chronology has, from differ- 
ent causes, excited much attention in the literary 
world. The Mahd Yoog, or great divine day, through 
which mankind are now passing, consists of four 
human ages, the last and worst of which is now re- 
volving. These ages, of unequal and continually de- 
creasing length, are the 



190 nroiA.. 

Satya Yoog, which lasted 1,728,000 years. 

TeetaYoog 1,296,000 " 
Dwapar Yoog 864,000 " 

Kale Yoog, which is to last 432,000 " 

Of the dark era in which we live, only about five 
thousand years have already passed. Of the Satyayoog, 
the golden age of innocence, there remains only a dim 
and pleasing tradition, the great flood said to have 
occurred, at its close, swept away all its memorials. 
This vast sum of years has been eagerly seized upon 
by the opponents of the Bible as an argument against 
the Mosaic records. But the power of this deistical ar- 
gument is broken by the fact, that but thirty-six kings 
are alleged to have reigned daring the second, and 
forty-seven during the third period ; and as seventeen, 
or some say twenty years, is the average reign in a 
long series of kings, the Hindoo dynasties will not 
pass beyond our established chronology. The com- 
mencement of the Kal6 Yoog does not materially differ 
from the Mosaic date of the creation. 

As to natural philosophy, chemistry, mineralogy, 
botany, geology, and like departments of knowledge, 
there is no evidence on record of their having been 
pursued by the Hindoos as separate sciences. They, 
undoubtedly, engaged considerable attention, but no 
treatises upon these subjects are extant, so far as my 
information goes. 

India abounds with Doctors, or to speak with more 
truth, with empirics and quacks since we have the 



SCIENCE OF THE HINDOOS. 191 

authority of Sir "Wm. Jones, for saying, that " physio 
appears in that country to have been, from time im- 
memorial, as we see it practised afc this day by 
Hindoos and Mohamedans, a mere empirical history 
of diseases and their remedies." The Shastras having 
affirmed, that, in the human body, there v^ere cer- 
tain defined elements, the student inferred from 
thence that all diseases vi^ere owing to the diminution 
or increase of these essential ingredients ; and to 
reduce these elements when superabundant, and in- 
crease them when wanting, he had recourse to a series 
of medicines obtained from the bark, wood, roots, 
fruit, or flowers, of different plants or trees, or from a 
course of regimen supposed to be suited to the circum- 
stances of the patient. Fevers they starve away by 
keeping the patient fasting from one to ten and even 
twenty days. They never bleed a patient, for the life 
is in the blood. Inoculation for the small pox has 
long been customary in India, the virus being intro- 
duced just above the wrist. The Hindoo depends, 
however, as much upon charms, and prayers for 
restoration to health, as upon medicines. The phy- 
sician expects to receive his fee before prescrib- 
ing, which varies, according to the ability of the 
patient, from a few pence to hundreds of dollars. 
While Hindoo practitioners decry the European ' Fa- 
culty,' they allow their superiority as surgeons, and 
borrow from them much knowledge respecting the 
stopping of bleeding, and setting of limbs. It is well 
for the poor Hindoos that the simplicity of their diet 



192 INDIA. 

gives their blood uncommon purity, so that their 
wounds recover with wonderful expedition, otherwise 
the sufferings they would receive from the unskilful 
hand of the Hindoo surgeon could not be borne. The 
happiness of any community being so greatly depen- 
dent upon the character of its medical advisers, every 
philanthropist finds it a cause of gratitude and joy 
that Medical Colleges have been established under the 
direction of the English government at Calcutta, 
Madras, and Bombay. To each of these institutions 
are attached professors of high attainment, and native 
prejudice has so far yielded, that there is no lack of 
pupils, who are pursuing their studies with great dili- 
gence and zeal, and who will thus, ere long, supply 
India with sound medical assistance. I would here 
remark that extensive hospitals have been established 
in all the large cities and towns of the country, which 
are presided over by an European physician, with 
several Eurasian and native assistants. Polytechnic 
institutions, in which lectures on the sciences, espe- 
cially chemistry, with modern discoveries in steam, 
galvanism, electricity, &c., have been established, and 
have thus far been attended with good results. When 
the foreigner tells a Hindoo that news can be trans- 
mitted a thousand miles a moment, the astonished 
listener professes to believe the statement, because 
"His Honor," or "the Reverend" says so, but he 
would much like to see it done. 

If truth and justice do not triumph in India, it is 
not for want of Lawyers, any more than sickness and 



SCIENCE OP THE HINDOOS, 193 

suffering are caused by lack of doctors. An injured 
person may, at any moment, obtain the services of one 
who is, by profession, learned in the law, and who 
promises to secure for him his rights of property, char- 
acter and peace. If he fee disappointed it is no more 
than falls to the lot of multitudes in this land, who 
trust to the like "uncertainty." But few natives are 
wealthy enough to retain an English barrister ; most 
cases, therefore, are entrusted to a class of persons 
called Yakeels, who are little superior in knowledge 
and principles to the pettifoggers of an English or 
American court. 

It is believed that no thoughtful reader of the pre- 
ceding pages will deny to the Hindoos of former times 
the praise of much intellectual cultivation. " The 
variety of subjects upon which they wrote, prove that 
almost every science was cultivated among them, while 
the contents of their philosophical and law books indi- 
cate the depth of wisdom possessed by their authors 
compared with the writings of any nation flourishing 
at that time. In these respects the deterioration has 
been great and general throughout the country. The 
decay of Hindoo learning may be dated from the Mo- 
hamedan conquest. The heaviest hlow struck was 
when Madura, eminent as the seat of a University 
famed the country over, became a prey to the ravages 
of the bigoted and unsparing conquerors. Up to that 
time, such was the celebrity of that city, in a literary 
and religious point of view, that multitudes congregated 
here annually from the most remote parts of the penin- 
9 



194 INDIA, 

sula for instruction in science ; and here, too, Mr. Bell 
obtained an acquaintance with that mode of instruction 
which he carried to Europe, and immortalized his 
name. But as elevated as was the height, so deep 
has been the fall of national science in that country. 
A few Brahmins at Benares, and in connection with 
native colleges, read parts of the Shastras, Smirtees, ' 
Yedas, &c., and venture to publish editions of the same, 
with explanations. But no original works of note have 
appeared during the last century. In the library of a 
learned Hindoo may be found one of the grammars, a 
dictionary, five or six volumes of poetry, a few law 
books, a popular work on astronomy, portions of the 
Puranas, a few abridgments on the common religious 
rites and ceremonies. The Hindoo youth possesses 
a capacity for study and erudition by no means inferior 
to the young of other lands, but so soon as the elements 
of knowledge are acquired, he is removed from school 
to assist in supporting his family, and there his educa- 
tion closes. Hence the want of intelligence among 
the mass of the people, the necessity being urgent for 
those institutions of learning with which the benevolence 
of Christendom is furnishing that land ; — institutions 
which, while seeking as their ultimate and important 
end to sanctify the heart, are intended to enlighten the 
national mind upon the works and ways of the Divine 
Creator. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OF INDIA. 

Introductory Remark — Agriculture — Modes of Cultivation — Native 
Plow, HarroviT and Threshing Machines — Cultivation of Rice, Wheat, 
Barley, Indigo, Opium, Sugar, and Tobacco — Fabrics — Native Loom — 
Glass — Potter — Carpenter — Blacksmith — Goldsmith — Shoemaker — 
Brassfounder — Barber — Confectioner — Florist — Shopman — Washer- 
man — Oilman — Milkman — Fisherman — Distiller — Palanquin Bearer 
— Difficulty of introducing Modern Implements — Public Buildings — 
Descriptions of Temples at Elephanta, Seringham, and Madura — 
Droogs — Reflections upon beholding these Ruins. 

One cannot live long among the Hindoos without 
observing the vast discrepancy between the results of 
their industrial occupations and the means by which 
they are accomplished. In many departments of art 
India knows no superior, the vv^orld over, and yet the 
machinery employed is of the most simple and primi- 
tive kind ; such, indeed, as no European artisan would 
use in forming the rudest structure or the coarsest 
fabric. By way of illustration, the reader's attention 
is requested to a review of the leading occupations 
and implements of the country. Agriculture stands 



196 INDIA. 

foremost among the pursuits of native Hindoos. Two 
modes of cultivation are practiced, wet and dry^ the 
former being devoted principally to rice and indigo, the 
land requiring to be watered by means of tanks with 
their strong, high embankments, and wells from twenty 
to three hundred feet deep, while upon the dry lands 
are the sugar cane, barley, wheat, and various o<"her 
grains, fruits, and vegetables. The plough used by 
the farmer consists of two rude sticks, or one if suffi- 
ciently crooked, with an iron spike at the end, as a 
share which the ploughman guides with one hand, 
while he uses the other in directing the movements of 
the cattle ; thus making a rut or scratch in the field 
similar to the movement just beneath the soil of a 
strong finger. Entering a village at an early hour of 
the day, you will see the farmer going to his toil, 
bearing upon his shoulder yoke and plough, which he 
steadies with one hand, while with the other he holds 
the rope-reins fastened to his tiny bullocks. The sow- 
ing is as clumsy as the ploughing. The common 
drill-machine has three pieces of sticks, that make 
scratches about an inch and a half in depth, and the 
seeds drop into the scratches through three hollow bits 
of bamboo, that are immediately behind the scratching 
sticks. These bamboos are united to one rude vessel 
at the top, containing the seeds. The larger seeds 
are sown by means of a bamboo fastened to the drill 
by a string, and having a little cup upon the end. A 
woman attends to this bamboo, holding directly over 
any one of the three scratches, into which she wishes 



ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OP INDIA 197 

the seed to fall with one hand, and dropping the seed 
into the cup with the other. The covering plough 
follows, which is a horizontal stick drawn along by- 
two bullocks, and by being pressed against the ground, 
covers the seed with mould. The operation of sowing 
requires the attention of four persons and the labor of 
four bullocks. The business of the harrow is performed 
by an instrument like a ladder, on which the husband- 
man stands, while rough bushes attached to it assist 
smoothing the ground. Instead of threshing ma- 
chines, the rice is beaten out of the husk, the pulse 
trodden out by the cattle, and the small grain threshed 
with a staff. These implements are the same that 
have been in use throughout the land, from time im- 
memorial. G-ood rice lands in Bengal yield about 
forty bushels per acre, and in Mysore about forty-five ; 
fifteen bushels of produce to one of seed being consid- 
ered a fair return. In the rich districts among the 
Grhauts, there are often two crops a year, and at times 
three. In Gruzerat, Malwa, and Allahabad, wheat is 
sown, which yields about fifty bushels per acre. In the 
hilly districts of the north barley is the bread-grain. 
India is famed for its indigo^ which grows wild in the 
neighborhood of the Granges and Jumna, but largely 
cultivated throughout Hindoostan Proper. Opium is 
the product of Bengal, Bahar, Allahabad, and Malwa, 
yielding from thirty to forty pounds to an acre of pop- 
pies. Sugar is very abundant in the Circars, and 
with due encouragement might furnish the market 
of all Europe, Tobacco, of excellent flavor, grows 



198 INDIA. 

throughout the midland districts. Did my limits 
allow a complete exhibition of the mode of cultivating 
and gathering and perfecting these products, a like 
simplicity would appear in the system pursued, and 
implements used as before named. The same holds 
in respect to the productions of the loom. What 
fabrics more durable and beautiful, too, than the Arnee 
and Decca muslins, Malabar checks, Bengal chintz, 
with the silks of Burdwar, carpets of Ellore, flannels 
of Patra, the calicoes of Coromandel, the embroideries 
of Delhi, and shawls of the North and North-west. 
When examining the irregular texture, and fineness of 
thread and beauty of color, I have hardly known which 
was predominant, admiration of their superior excel- 
lence, or wonder at the places and modes of their for- 
mation. The weavers reside in villages, and when the 
article they make is in demand, a busy scene arrests 
the attention of the traveller. Man, woman, and 
child are all employed in one way or another. And 
all in the open air, except silk weaving, which is 
done in a cellar or low basement like room. The 
loom is rude enough, consisting of four forJced 
sticks set in the ground, — two pieces across these 
sticks, to which the ends of the web are attached, for 
the warp is not rolled on a beam, as with us. The 
hiddles are but sticks and strings, which are fastened 
to the tree which shelters the weaver, and he gets a 
foot into each of the two loops at the bottom, and 
with this contrivance, upon which an European could 
not manufacture the coarsest canvas, the Hindoo per- 



ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OP INDIA. 199 

fects his delicate and beautiful texture. Bleaching, 
coloring, &c., are all done in the same simple but per- 
fect manner. Glass is made in the Mysore district, 
but soft and opaque, being principally used for rings 
and bracelets. Pottery is rude and coarse, though 
abundant, a necessity being found in the fact that al- 
most all the idols and cooking utensils are made from 
clay. The Hindoo carpenter knows no other tools than 
the pilane, chisel, wimble, a hammer and hatchet. The 
earth his shop-board, his foot the hold-fast ; but he will 
''turn out" an article which (in all respects but bril- 
liancy of finish) will bear a comparison with the like 
productions in any English or American city. The 
blacksmith sets up his forge before the house of the 
person who calls him, and with the clay oven at hand, 
makes a wall, before which he places his hearth, and 
behind which are two leather bellows, kept in motion 
by his attendant apprentice ; his anvil a stone, and 
his apparatus a pair of pincers, hammer, mallet, and 
file. Here he makes to order bill-hooks, spade, hoe, 
weeding-knife, ploughshare, nails, locks, keys, &c., 
as may be needed. The goldsmith also carries his 
shop with him. His furnace is an earthen pot — an 
iron pipe his bellows — while his crucible is made upon 
the spot, and thrown aside when no longer needed. 
Who would suppose, when admiring the " Trichinopoly 
watch-chains," with the gold and silver ornaments of 
Vizagapatam, that the utensils employed in their 
manufacture are thus simple and rude. The females 
of India being excessively fond of ornaments, the 



200 INDIA. 

workers in the precious metals have constant and pro- 
fitable employment. The shoemakers, though very 
important members of community, are esteemed among 
the lowest in the land. In social position they are be- 
low the Soodras, and are employed as executioners of 
criminals, and for carrying away dead bodies. A knife 
and awl are their tools. The leather is made after the 
shoes are ordered, and the article is cheap and inferior. 
To these may be added brass-founders, shell ornament 
makers, barbers, who may be seen at the road-side, 
shaving the head, shaving or plucking the beard. Con- 
fectioners, with the hundred different sweet meats, 
principally composed of sugar, molasses, flowers and 
spices, of which all natives, adult and young, are ex- 
cessively fond. Sellers offloivers, who prepare wreaths 
for the bride and groom, with the other appendages to 
a marriage procession. Shop-keepers of various grades. 
Washermen, who make sad havoc of the clothes put 
in their charge by beating them upon a flat board or 
stone till cleansed, and then pounding with a mallet 
till made smooth and fit for use. Bankers, or money- 
changers, who are ever ready to accommodate you 
with funds at 10 to 40 per cent, interest. Oilmen, 
who furnish an excellent article pressed from the co- 
coanut shell and castor bean, either of which emits a 
clear, strong, and steady light, with no unpleasant 
odor. Milkmen, who will, if well watched, bring to 
you for a reasonable sum this needful accompaniment 
of an evening's meal, and of a character superior to any 
just anticipations upon seeing the poor condition in 



ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OF INDIA. 201 

which the animals are kept by their owners. Fisher- 
men, a hardy, industrious, but illiterate class of per- 
sons, who find a ready market for an article of food 
which but few, even among the most religious Hin- 
doos, need reject. Distillers, who make arrack from 
rice, molasses, water, and spices ; and a species of rum, 
made from the bark of several trees steeped in water ; 
and, finally, Palanquin-bearers, a laborious and useful 
class, referred to in a preceding chapter. 

Such are some of the trades and occupations of 
native Hindoos, with the implements of their in- 
dustry. " But why," asks my reader, " do not for- 
eigners introduce the machines and implements of 
the western continent ?" To a limited extent this 
has been done ; but it is a precept of that land most 
faithfully heeded, that " ancient custom is irreversible 
law." The English officer who had in charge the dis- 
trict of Madura during my residence in that city, im- 
ported from England several ploughs and hoes, with an 
admirable loom for weaving cotton. " To please His 
Honor," the complaisant farmer used the plough for a 
little time, but soon found a plausible pretext for re- 
turning to the time-honored scratcher ; while the other 
implements met a no more fortunate reception. We 
made every effort to induce the woman who swept our 
rooms to use the brooms we carried from this country, 
instead of the bunch of grass tied in a brush-like form, 
which was to the highest extent wearisome : but, no, 
custom prevented. The same obstacle opposes all ad- 
vances in cotton cultivation, and like improvements. 



203 INDIA. 

" Our fathers did so, and so will we," say the people 
all the country over. The native Hindoos , excel as 
copyists. Their painters will give the most faithful 
representations of any object that is set before them ; 
their craftsmen will build a carriage or construct a 
piece of furniture the fac similie of any given model ; 
and their tailors never fail in making a garment 
precisely according to the pattern. They excel in 
this species of accurate imitation rather than in origin- 
ating any new device or unattempted contrivance. 
In this connection may be introduced a few remarks 
respecting the public buildings of India. These are of 
two kinds, those consecrated to the offices of religion, 
and fortresses built for the security of the country. 
To the former are given the general names of tem- 
ples and pagodas^ and indicate by their vast dimen- 
sions and high degrees of finish, a state of public 
sentiment, as well as skill and energy, which belonged 
to a race scarcely within the range of known his- 
tory. Let three suffice by way of illustration. The 
pagoda, in the island of Elephanta, near Bombay, has 
been hewn by the hands of man out of a solid rock, 
about half way up a high mountain, and formed into a 
spacious area nearly one hundred and twenty feet 
square. In order to support the roof and the weight 
of the mountain that lies above it, a number of massy 
pillars have been cut out of the same rock, at such 
regular distances as on the first entrance presents an 
appearance of great beauty and strength. Much of the 
inside is covered with human figures in high relief, of 



ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OF INDIA, 203 

gigantic size as well as singular forms, and distin- 
guished by a variety of symbols representing, it is pro- 
bable, the attributes of the deities whom they worship- 
ped, or the actions of the heroes whom they admired. 
In the Isle of Salsette, still nearer Bombay, are exca- 
vations in a similar style, hardly inferior in magnifi- 
cence, and destined for the same religious purposes. 
The first pagoda I visited was that on the island of 
Seringham, near the city of Trichinopoly, and my 
memory still retains a vivid impression of its vastness 
and magnificence. It is composed of seven square en- 
closures, one within another, the walls of which are 
twenty-five feet high and four thick. These enclosures 
are three hundred and fifty feet distant from one ano- 
ther, and each has four large gates with a high tower, 
which are placed one in the middle of each side of the 
enclosure, and opposite to the four cardinal points. 
The outward wall is nearly four miles in circumfer- 
ence, and its gateway to the south is ornamented with 
pillars, several of which are single stones thirty-three 
feet long, and nearly five feet in diameter ; and those 
which form the roof are still larger. In the inmost en- 
closure is the chapel, which vies with Benares and 
Ramisseran for sanctity and efficacious power to bless 
the unnumbered pilgrims who flock to it from the re- 
motest distances to secure absolution and heaven. Few 
places in India have obtained greater or more permanent 
celebrity than the city of Madura. In this connection 
I name the single feature of a large edifice (called a 
choultry) built by Trimal Naig, an ancient king of 



204 INDIA. 

great wealth and power. This building is in the form 
of a parallelogram, three hundred and twelve feet 
in length, by one hundred and twenty-five in breadth. 
It consists of one vast hall, the ceiling of which is 
supported by six rows of columns twenty-five feet 
high, most of which are formed of single stones, and 
the whole composed of hard, grey granite. On the 
second pillar to the right of the spectator as he enters, 
is the figure of the founder of this gorgeous struc- 
ture, in a group with six of his wives, one of 
whom has a large gash below the hip on the left 
side, the result of a blow by her royal lord, because 
she told him tauntingly that the edifice was far 
inferior in splendor to her father's stables. Beyond 
this column are other statues, commemorative of re- 
markable events in the respective reigns of his ances- 
tors. The same prince erected a palace but a short 
distance from this choultry, which the present ruins 
show to have been a noble structure. Rising from the 
immense plains of India are eminences and rocks, of 
which the natives early took possession, and fortifying 
them with works of various kinds, rendered them al- 
most impregnable stations. Of these fortresses, or 
droog'S, several still remain near the city of Benares 
and in the Deccan, which must have been constructed 
in very remote times, and repelled almost any amount 
of force which could have been brought to bear against 
them. India abounds with the magnificent remains of 
temples, palaces, pagodas, forts, mausoleums, and 
walls, v/hich indicate the past existence in that land of a 



ARTS AND OCCUPATIONS OF INDIA, 205 

wealth, power, ingenuity, religious zeal, and enterprise, 
which forms a sad contrast with what now appears in 
the sentiments and feelings of the nation. The person 
who would have his heart filled with strong, delighted, 
sorrowing, and wondrous emotions, let him go to 
Delhi, to Benares, to Mysore, to Madura, and he will 
return satisfied so far as feeling is concerned, but still 
perplexed with questions to which no replies have been 
returned, and which will remain forever veiled in the 
darkness of remote antiquity. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 

Hindoos not fond of work— Card-playing— Backgammon— Dominoes 
—Checkers — Chess — Quoits — Marbles — Cock-fighting— Dancing— 
Story-telling ; Tale of the three deaf men — Theatrical Exhibitions 
— Hunting— Gymnastics and Jugglery, illustrated by descriptions of 
wondrous feats— Remarks. 

" Labor ipse voluptas,'''' conveys a sentiment with 
which the Hindoo has no practical sympathy. "When 
he works, it is from necessity, not choice — to satisfy a 
demand, not to gratify an inclination. In place of the 
motto, " labor is itself pleasant," he would substitute 
this, " woi'k when you must, be idle when you can, 
eat, drink, and be merry." My reader may suggest that 
this is human nature the world over. Grant it, but 
in regions within the tropics the instinct is less easy 
of resistance than in our more vigorous clime, while 
with greater simplicity of dress and diet the necessity 
is not so urgent for laborious exertion of mind and body. 
The Brahmins, not in government offices, do little after 
completing their daily routine of ceremonies than re- 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 207 

cline, talk, and while away the weary hours in modes 
more pleasing than profitable. Upon the afternoon 
they may be seen upon the front verandahs of their 
dwellings, the picture of contentment, self-satisfaction, 
and indolence. If one member of a Hindoo family se- 
cure a situation which yields a salary sufficient to main- 
tain the household, even the husband, son, or brother, 
deem it in no way unbecoming to look to that source 
for their daily subsistence. It is in reference to cus- 
toms such as prevail throughout India that the saying 
of the wise man holds true : — " If riches increase, they 
increase who eat them." To these remarks there are 
honorable exceptions — but such is the habit of the 
nation. 

To be wholly unemployed is wretchedness, therefore 
the Hindoo relieves this ennui by attendance upon 
religious festivals, the number of which is great 
and the parade attractive and imposing — presence at 
marriage ceremonies, with their showy and brilliant 
accompaniments — and participating in or witnessing 
amusemertts, shows, sports, which are by turns 
mirthful, tragic, and deeply exciting. Many of these 
find their counterparts in our own country, while 
others are adapted to Eastern taste and habits. 
Hours are wasted at the card-table, with the com- 
mon yet sad results of property, character, and peace, 
sacrificed at the shrine of this ensnaring game. Back- 
gammon is attractive to many, together with the less 
intellectual dominoes and checkers. Chess is reserved 



208 INDIA. 

for the few who are willing and disposed t'o think long 
and intently. By the highway may be seen youth and 
adults playing at quoits and marbles, with much sldll 
and earnestness. Cock-fighting is confined to the Mo- 
hamedans or lower class of Hindoos, and is pursued 
with all the refinements of cruelty common to that 
heartless sport. 

Dancing is restricted to the females, and of 
these to a class among whom virtue and mo- 
desty have no abode. The movements of the Hin- 
doo " dancing girl," whether before the idol or in the 
presence of nobility and wealth, are wholly free from 
those vehement pirouettes, extravagant contortions 
of limb, dizzy gyrations, and pedal dexterity, which 
made the name of Fanny Ellsler, Europe and America 
famed. The Nautch girl advances gracefully before 
her audience, her arms moving in unison with her tiny 
naked feet, with little variety but much grace, and with 
an expressiveness of motion both understood by, and 
gratifying to those who sympathize with the actress in 
moral sentiments, though suggestive of sorrow and 
disgust to one of high and pure emotions. The orna- 
ments worn by these dancers are often of great ele- 
gance and high value. The throat is encircled with 
several necklaces, sornelimas composed of pearls, and 
often of gold richly chased. A large jewel hangs from 
the right nostril, suspended by a plain gold ring. On 
the forehead, between the eye-brows, an ornament is 
worn, which has, no doubt, given rise to the sevigne, 
gracing of late the European belle. Their symmetry 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 209 

of form, modesty and elegance of attire, gracefulness 
of attitude and motion, contrast most sadly with their 
habitual habits and feelings. The most abandoned of 
their sex, captives to licentiousness, you can in no 
way more directly insult a Hindoo female than by 
calling her a dancing girl. On this account India 
Nautches are decreasing in popularity, and will do so 
in proportion to the progress of high-toned morality 
among the European residents. The time has gone 
by when a civilian or military officer would take 
his wife and daughter to these entertainments, and 
yet the dances, generally speaking, are much more 
decent, than those encouraged in the theatres of 
Europe, which young and innocent girls are permitted 
to behold and applaud without a blush. 

Story-telling and hearing consume a great deal of 
a Hindoo's time. Some of these tales are accounts of 
marvels performed by deities and heroes, while others 
are entirely fictitious. By way of illustrating the lat- 
ter class, I will insert a " Tale of Four Deaf Men :" 

"A deaf shepherd was one day tending his flock, 
near his own village ; and though it was almost noon, 
his wife had not yet brought him his breakfast. He 
was afraid to leave his sheep to go in quest of it, lest 
some accident should befall them. But his hunger 
could not be appeased ; and upon looking around, he 
spied a Talaiyari, or village hind, who had come to 
cut grass for his cow, near a neighboring spring. He 
went to call him, though very reluctantly, because he 
knew that though those servants of the village are set 



210 INDIA. 

as watclimen to prevent theft, yet they are great 
thieves themselves. He hailed him, however, and 
requested him just to give an eye to his flock during 
the short time he should be absent, and that he would 
not forget him when he returned from breakfast. But 
the man was as deaf as himself ; and mistaking his 
intentions, he angrily asked the shepherd, " What 
right have you to take this grass which I have had the 
trouble to cut ? Is my cow to starve that your sheep 
may fatten ? Go about thy business and let me alone." 
The deaf shepherd observed the repulsive gesture of 
the hind, which he took for a signal of acquiescence, 
and therefore briskly ran towards the village, fully 
determined to give his wife a good lesson for her 
neglect. But, when he approached his house, he saw 
her before the door, rolling in the pains of a violent 
colic. Her sad condition, and the necessity he was 
under to provide breakfast for himself, detained the 
shepherd longer than he wished ; while the small 
confidence he had in the person with whom he left the 
sheep, accelerated his return. Overjoyed to see his 
flock peaceably feeding near the spot where he left 
them, he counted them over ; and finding there was 
not a single sheep missing, ' He is an honest fellow,' 
quoth he, ' this Talaiyari, the very jewel of his race ! 
I promised him a reward, and he shall have it.' There 
was a lame beast in the flock, well enough in other 
respects, which he hoisted on his shoulders and car- 
ried to the place where the hind was, and courteously 
oflered him the mutton, saying, ' You have taken 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 211 

great care of my sheep during my absence. Take 
this one for your trouble.' ' I,' says the deaf hind, 
' I break your sheep^s leg" I I'll be hanged if ever I 
went near your sheep since you have been gone, or 
stirred from the place where I now am.' ' Yes,' 
says the shepherd, ' it is good and fat mutton^ and 
will be a treat to you, your family, and friends.' 
' Have I not told thee,' replied the Talaiyari in rage, 
' that I never went near thy sheep ; and yet thou 
wilt accuse me of breaking that one's \e.g. Get about 
thy business, or I will give thee a beating.' And by his 
gestures he seemed determined to put his threat into 
execution. The astonished shepherd got into a passion 
also, and assumed a posture of defiance. They were 
just proceeding to blows, when a man on horseback 
came up. To him they both appealed to decide the 
dispute between them ; and the shepherd laying hold 
of the bridle, requested the horseman to alight just 
for a moment, and to settle the difference between 
him and the beggarly Talaiyari. ' I have offered 
him a present of a sheep,' said he, 'because I 
thought that he had done me a service ; and, in re- 
quital, he will knock me down.' The villager was 
at the same time preferring his complaint, that the 
shepherd would accuse him of breaking the leg of his 
sheep, when he had never been near his flock. The 
horseman, to whom they had both appealed, happened 
to be as deaf as they : and did not understand a word 
that either of them said. But seeing them both ad- 
dressing him with vehemence, he made a sign to 



212 INDIA. 

them to listen to"hirn,|and then frankly told them that 
he confessed that the horse he rode was not his own. 
' It was a stray animal that I found on the road,' quoth 
he, ' and being at a loss, I mounted him for the sake 
of expedition. If he be yours take him. If not, pray 
let me proceed, as I am really in great haste.' The 
shepherd and the hind, each imagining that the horse- 
man had decided in favor of the other, became more 
violent than ever ; both accusing the umpire of par- 
tiality. At this crisis there happened to come an aged 
Brahmin. Instantly they all crowded around him — 
shepherd, Talaiyari, and horseman — each claiming his 
interposition, and a decision in his favor. All spoke 
together, every one telling his own tale. But the 
Brahmin had lost his hearing also. ' I know,' said 
he, ' that you want to compel me to return to her 
(meaning his wife), but do you know her character ? 
In all the legions of evil ones I defy you to find one 
that is her equal in wickedness. Since the time 
I first bought her, she has made me commit more sin 
than it will be in my power to expiate in thirty gene- 
rations. I am going on a pilgrimage to Kasi (Benares), 
where I will wash myself from the innumerable 
crimes I have been led into, from the hour on which 
I had the misfortune to make her my wife. Then will 
I wear out the rest of my days on alms in a strange 
land.' While they were all venting their exclamations 
,without hearing a word, the horse-stealer perceived 
some people advancing toward them with great speed. 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OP INDIA. 213 

Fearing that they might be the owners of the beast, 
he dismounted and took to his heels. The shepherd 
seeing it was growing late, went to look after his flock, 
pouring out imprecations, as he trudged along, against 
all arbitrators, and bitterly complaining that all justice 
had departed from the earth. Then he bethought 
himself of a snake that had crossed his path in the 
morning, as he came out of the sheep-fold, and which 
might account for the troubles he had that day ex- 
perienced. The Talaiyari returned to his load of grass ; 
and finding the lame sheep there, he took it on his 
shoulders, to punish the shepherd for the vexation he 
had given him, and the aged Brahmin pursued his way to 
a choultry not far off. A quiet night and sound sleep 
soothed his anger in part, and early in the morning, 
several Brahmins, his neighbors and relations, who had 
traced him out, persuaded him to return home, pro- 
mising to engage his wife to be more obedient and less 
quarrelsome in future." 

"With stories like these, the memory of the Hindoo 
is full, and it requires but a brief residence in the 
country to observe the use made of them, in relieving 
the tedium of long journeys by night, and unem- 
ployed hours on the verandahs of their dwellings. 

Theatrical exhibitions are common throughout the 
country, especially during the four months when the 
deeds of Krishna, Rama, Siva, and Doorga are to be 
recalled and celebrated. These entertainments occur 
at night, and are often continued until near morning, 



214 INDIA. 

the spectators being affected with grief and joy to as 
great a degree as those who behold the tragedies and 
comedies of the European stage. Many of these 
scenes having reference to alleged and recorded events 
in the life of the lascivious Krishna, produce a very 
deleterious eifect upon the morals of the spectators — 
especially the young, to whom the drama proves a 
curse and ruin. 

Tiger and elephant hunting' once engaged a large 
share of public attention. After much and long pre- 
paration, the nabob would sally forth with the retinue 
of a thousand strong, to attack the noble tenants of 
the jungle and forest. He was not unfrequ.ently at- 
tended by the European resident, from whom a voyage 
across the sea had not taken a love for the chase. 
But those scenes belong to the past, hunting being 
confined to the northern districts and conducted upon 
a limited scale and with diminished zeal. 

The Hindoos delight in the marvellous, as appears 
from their fondness for such tales as that before named, 
and others akin to the " Arabian Nights." On this 
account it is not surprising that the country should 
have become famed for its gymnastics and jugglery. 
Both are carried to a perfection that defies all com- 
petition. The eye must witness their feats of agility 
and cunning ere the mind can really believe them 
possible. I am aware that this is a trite topic, and 
yet some of my readers may not have in their 
memories the precise methods in which the Hindoos 
show their skill, and for their benefit I will name a 



POPULAR AiMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 215 

few instances, some of which have come under my 
own observation, and all are authentic. The jugglers 
and gymnastic performers journey in companies, carry- 
ing their poles, ropes, baskets, jars, &c., with them, 
and perform wherever they can secure profitable spec- 
tators. You are sitting on the verandah, and a com- 
pany enters the yard. If you do not bid them away 
they will begin something in this manner : A woman 
takes a bamboo twenty feet high, places it upright on 
a flat stone, and then, without any support, climbs to 
the top with surprising activity. Having done this, 
she stands upon one leg on the point of the bamboo, 
balancing it all the while. Around her waist she has 
a girdle to which is fastened an iron socket ; — spring- 
ing from her upright position on the bamboo, she 
throws herself horizontally forward with such exact 
precision, that the top of the pole enters the socket of 
the iron zone, and in this position she spins herself 
with a velocity that makes you giddy to look at ; the 
bamboo appearing all the while as if it were supported 
by some supernatural agency. She turns her legs 
backward till the heels touch her shoulders, and 
grasping the ankles in her hands, continues her rota- 
tion so rapidly as to appear like a revolving ball. 
Then sliding down the pole she balances it on her 
chin, then upon her nose, and finally, projects it a dis- 
tance from her without the application of her hands. 

This over — a man comes forward, places his head 
downward, with his heels in the air, raises his arms and 
crosses them upon his breast, balancing himself all the 



216 INDIA. 

while upon his head. A cup which he projects upward, 
containing sixteen balls is now placed in his hands ; 
keeping the whole sixteen in constant motion, crossing 
them, and causing them to describe all kinds of figures, 
and not allowing one of them to reach the ground. A 
small man then climbs up his body, and stands upon 
the inverted feet of the performer. A second cup, 
containing sixteen balls, is handed to him, who com- 
mences throwing them until the thirty-two are in mo- 
tion. The whole being caught in the cups, the upper 
man jumps to the ground, and the other as nimbly 
springs to his feet. 

Such feats being over, a performer comes near you, 
spreads a cloth upon the ground about the size of a 
sheet. After lying still for some time, it seems to 
move upward, and upon being removed you see several 
pine-apples growing under it, which the performer 
presents to you as proof that they are the genuine 
article. I have witnessed this trick many times, and 
yet it is to me wholly inexplicable. 

Does the reader "see through" that, well here is 
one. A man takes a large earthen vessel, with a 
capacious mouth, fills it with water, and turns it 
upside down, when all the water flows out. The 
moment, however, it is turned mouth upwards, it is 
full again. He allows you to take it. You do so. You 
examine it. By his permission you break it in pieces, 
and yet you are no wiser than before. 

Here is another : A basket is produced, under which 
is put a lean Pariah dog ; after the lapse of a minute 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS OF INDIA. 217 

the basket is removed and she appears with a litter of 
seven puppies. These are again covered, and upon rais- 
ing the magic basket a goat is presented to view. Then 
comes a pig^ in the full vigor of existence, and when 
covered a little time it is presented with its throat cut, 
and again it is restored to life. 

But here comes what children call '• hocus pocus." 
A man takes a small bag full of brass balls, which he 
throws one by one into the air to the number of thirty- 
five. None of them appear to return. After a little 
pause, and a significant, guttural call, they are seen 
to fall one by one until the whole of them are replaced 
in the bag. 

But I must not continue these illustrations farther, 
for 1 am occupying space which might be devoted to 
more practical topics. I might allude to the snake 
catchers and charmers, and other feats of legerde- 
main, but these must suffice. As to the reality 
of such perf'trmances there is no room to doubt, as to 
the explanation, I can but refer the reader to the per- 
formers themselves. 

Such are some of the amusements by which the 
Hindoo beguiles the weary hours, and gratifies his 
taste for the mirthful, tragic, and marvellous. Accus- 
tomed as they are to deeds of mystery, the argument 
in favor of the Christian system drawn from miracles 
is almost powerless upon their minds. Over against 
one miracle upon the G-ospel record, multitudes are 
contained in their sacred books, and performed before 
their eyes. Their judgment may tell them that it is 
10 



218 INDIA. 

jugglery, and so say they may have been those of the 
Founder of Christianity. To pluck up mountains and 
hurl them to and fro at will — to cut off parts of the 
moon, and cast them to the earth — to fish up sacred 
books from the bottom of the sea — these are but 
a few among the deeds of the Hindoo deities, and 
what more of miracle can any religion allege. This 
objection against the special divinity of Christianity 
is often and skilfully used by the Brahmin, to parry 
the blow aimed against his favorite creed, and to gain 
for the system he teaches a stronger hold upon the 
faith of its credulous and attached devotees. 



CHAPTER XV. 

MUSIC OF THE HINDOOS. 

Remarks on the universal prevalence of Music — Antiquity of Hindoo 
Song — Remarkable statements by Sir William Jones — " No account- 
ing for tastes'' — Hindoo Gamut — Extract from Abbe Du Bois — 
Names of musical instruments — Style illustrated by Stanzas from the 
Poem of Arumuga Tambiran, sung at his baptism — Tw^o verses 
written in English by a Convert at Calcutta — Authors of " Spiritual 
Songs" in Southern India. 

'•' The practice of music is universal. There appears 
no nation upon the face of the earth to whom it is not 
familiar. It is, so to speak, the vernacular idiom of 
nature, and may be considered to be coeval with crea- 
tion." India, in its past and present attachment to 
song, illustrates the truth of these well-advised re- 
marks. Music accompanies all Hindoo festivals, all 
their processions whether solemn or gay, many of their 
religious ceremonies, and is almost daily resorted to 
the country over, as an evening recreation of the 
social circle. And so has it been from the earliest 
period, for, as another has eloquently said, " When the 



220 INDIA. 

war songs of the Grermans in the time of Tacitus, were 
pealed from hill to hill, like the cry of the Scottish 
gathering, or echoed through the dark tracts of their 
primeval forests, over which, perhaps, the waters of 
the deluge had poured their devastation, the Yina of 
the Hindoos was heard among the palm-groves of the 
East, tuned to scientific measures, and sharing with 
the nightingale the admiration of man." 

The celebrated Orientalist, Sir William Jones, in an 
article on Hindoo music, uses this language. 

" A learned native told me that he had frequently 
seen the most venomous and malignant snakes leave 
their holes upon hearing tunes on a flute, which gave 
them peculiar delight. And an intelligent Persian, 
who repeated his story again and again, and permitted 
me to write it down from his own lips declared that he 
had more than once been present when a celebrated 
lutanist, surnamed Bulbul, was playing to a large 
company, in a grove near Shiraz, when he distinctly 
saw the nightingales trying to vie with the musician, 
sometimes warbling on the trees, sometimes fluttering 
from branch to branch, as if they wished to approach 
the instrument whence the melody proceeded ; and at 
length dropping on the ground in a kind of ecstacy, 
from which they were soon raised by a change of 
mode." 

I feci no disposition to question the truth of these 
statements or to derogate ouarht from the fame of 
Hindoo musicians — but if these things were as Sir 
William and others tell us, the Hindoos have indeed 



MUSIC OF THE HINDOOS. 221 

" Fallen from their high estate." 

It is true that the natives of that country will allow 
the superiority of foreigners in almost all respects 
except in musical skill — it is true that, as I have 
myself observed, if upon the esplanade at Madras, the 
Governor's band is discoursing its finest strains at one 
end of the field, and half-dozen tom-tom and cymbal 
beaters are performing on the other end, the natives 
will flock to the latter with expressions of surprise 
that any musical ear could not perceive the superiority 
of India ovei- England — but it is hard to make the 
foreigner hear in the clash and clangor of Hindoo 
trumpets, cymbals, and drum, ought but noise, "et 
prseterea nihil." Were the reader to be where the 
writer has often found himself — in a village bungalow 
— trying to get a little rest after a day's toil, he will wish 
that the tom-tom and horn were anywhere else than 
within his hearing — so discordant, harsh, unmelodious. 
I shall be doing the Hindoos injustice if the impression 
be left upon the reader's mind that the music of India 
is performed, even at this time, without skill. The 
gamut has been known among them from the earliest 
time, and the Abbe Du Bois thinks that it has been 
borrowed from them by other nations who now use it. 
" It is but in modern times," he says, " that it has 
been introduced into Europe by the Benedictine monk, 
Guido Aretino, who adapted it to the seven signs, 
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, sa, which are the first syllables 
of some words contained in the first strophe of the 



222 INDIA. 

Latin hymn composed in honor of John the Baptist, 
which runs thus : — 

1 2 

" Ut queant laxis resonare fibris 

3_ 4 

Mira gestorum famuli tuorum 

5 6 _ 

Solve polluti labii reatum 

7 

Sancte Joanes." 



The Gramut of the Hindoo is the same as ours, be- 
ing composed of the same number of notes and 
arranged the same way. 

What renders the music of India so unwelcome to 
a cultivated ear, is the limited number of their tunes, 
and therefore constant reiteration of the same notes, and 
the small variety of their instruments together with the 
imperfect manner in which they are played. Dr. "Ward 
of Serampore mentions about forty kinds of instru- 
ments, of which twelve are different species of drums, 
four of tabors, four of violins, with the cymbal, reed, 
horn, hautboy, flute, Sfc. The most common article, 
and one that is dinging in your ear wherever you go 
is the tom-tom — which is nothing more than a half- 
tanned sheepskin, drawn, when damp, over a wide 
mouthed earthen or iron vessel from six to twenty or 
more inches across, and when dry beaten with a stick 
or leathern thong. This is often accompanied by a 
pair of sharp-sounding cymbals. A funeral procession 
is preceded by two persons, blowing each a long horn 
which emits a doleful and prolonged note of a dis- 
tinctive, and at times very plaintive and sorrowing 



MUSIC OP THE HINDOOS, 223 

character. There are horns also at marriage festivities, 
but of different shape and note. Scattered over the 
country, are pensioned or dismissed band -men, for- 
merly attached to European corps who are not unfre- 
quently present at funerals, and amid the clangor 
of cymbal and horn, you distinguish the notes of the 
"Dead March in Saul," upon the drum and fife. A 
strange medley which provokes a smile though in the 
presence of death. 

Every pagoda of any note, has a band of musicians ; 
who are obliged to attend at the temple twice every 
day, to make it ring with their discordant sounds and 
inharmonious airs. A portion of the musicians execute 
the vocal part, and sing hymns in honor of the gods. 

The singing of native Hindoos is much in the style 
of a chant — with prolongation of the sound at the end 
of each line. I am desirous of illustating this topic of 
Hindoo songs, but find a difficulty in selecting a piece 
entirely appropriate. I have concluded, however, to 
insert parts of a poem which was written by a re- 
ligious mendicant, when renouncing Hindooism and 
embracing Christianity. He sang it at his baptism. It 
describes in detail, the means he had successfully used 
to secure pardon and heaven.^ 

1. High places ascending, sitting painfully cross-legged 

as a Yogee and meditating . . . Enough, enough. 
Now the majestic Jesus who came to 

save me . . . . . Behold ye, behold ye- 



224 INDIA. 

2. The sacred Sadi, with entangled hair Rut- 

tracham, necklaces and beads . . . Enough, enough, 
Now — Jesus who delivers me from trusting 
in such things .... Behold ye, behold ye, 

3. Dressing in yellow robes and rubbing ashes on 

the body ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — the Lord Jesus who saw me and 
saved me ..... Behold ye, behold ye. 

4. Bathing in holy-waters and visiting Siva 

temples ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — Jesus, the God of gods who 
sought me and saved me . . Behold ye, behold ye. 

5. Wandering to holy places and bowing to 

images ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — the Divine Jesus who discovered 
and saved me . . . . Behold ye, behold ye. 

6. Of feast days and following idol 

cars ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — Jesus the Lord of worlds who pow- 
erfully saves me .... Behold ye, behold ye. 

7. Wearied with long pilgrimages to Casi, 

fainting and forlorn .... Enough, enough. 
Now the excellent Jesus who gov- 
erns me by his grace . . . Behold ye, behold ye. 

8. Carefully performing prayers, rites, and 

sacrifices ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — the salvation of the loving Jesus, 
to which He has called us . . . Behold ye, behold ye, 



MUSIC OF THE HINDOOS. 225 

9. Gathoring sacred flowers, and plucking ears of 

the VilvTim to perform idol 

worship ...... Enough, enough. 

Now — the sweet salvation of the 
Supreme Jesus .... Behold ye, behold ye 

10. Dropping holy oil into the sacred fire ; 

then whispering senseless mantras into 
the ears of deluded disciples . . Enough, enough. 
Now — to the pure baptism of Jesus 

who fills all .... Come ye, come ye. 

11. Cymbals, brass plates, and bells sound- 

ing in every street .... Enough, enough. 
Now — to the prayers and praises of the 
G-od Jesus ..... Come ye, come ye, 

12. Dancing before idols, hands clapping, 

and prostrations . . . . Enough, enough. 

Now the rightly instituted worship of 
the High Priest Jesus . .- . Come ye, come ye. 

13. Adorning with garlands, heathen vest- 

ments and necklaces . . . Enough, enough. 

Now — to the high praises of the 
heavenly Jesus .... Come ye, come ye. 

14. Wearing the Branim string and 

saying daUy mantras .... Enough, enough. 
Now — to the holy sacrament of 
the spotless Jesi^ .... Come ye, com« ye. 
10* 



226 INDIA 

15. Studying the Vethams and Shastras 

to obtain salvation • . . . Enough, enough. 

Now — to the true Grospel of the 
exalted Jesus .... Come ye, come ye. 

16. To leave wordly, lying, heathen- 

ism ...... Strive ye, strive ye. 

Now — to the doctrine taught 
by God's ministers . . . Come ye, come ye. 

The reader may gather from these stanzas some im- 
pression as to the manner in which the Poem is 
constructed. It was sung in a slow tone, with a 
dwelling upon the chorus "Enough, enough. — Come 
ye, come ye," 

The native style of singing is not retained in places 
of Christian worship — hymns having been written to 
the tunes common with us, as " Old Hundred," 
" Mear," " St. Thomas," and the like. That the Hin- 
doo can adapt himself by practice to the European 
stanza" is evident from many examples that might be 
given. Here is one which was written by a Hindoo, 
a proficient in English, and sung at his baptism. 

" Long sunk in superstition's night, by sin and Satan driven, 
I saw not, cared not, for the light which leads the blind to heaven. 
I sat in darkness, reason's eye was shut, was closed in me, 
I hastened to eternity, o'er error's dreadful sea. 

But now, at length, thy grace, Lord, bids all around me shine, 
I drink thy sweet, thy precious word, I kneel before thy shrine. ' 
I've broke affection's tenderest ties, for my dear Saviour's sake, 
All, all, I lo^e beneath the skies. Lord, I for thee forsake," 



MUSIC OF THE HINDOOS. 227 

The reader will rightly conclude that the writer of 
those verses could easily compose hymns to our metre. 

The Tamil churches of Southern India are much 
indebted to the late Mr. Rhenius and to my esteemed 
friends, the Rev. Messrs. Spaulding and Hutchings, 
with contributions from the lamented Lawrence and 
others for the " spiritual songs" sung in missionary 
chapels. 

A hymn-book, used by the Canarese Christians of 
the Mysore district, lies before me, chiefly from the 
pen of the Rev. Messrs. Rice and Campbell, of the 
London Missionary Society, 

The German missionaries have always taken a 
leading part in this department of Christian literature. 

This is as much as my limits will allow me to say 
on the music of the Hindoos. 



CHAPTER XYI. 

PECULIAR CEREMOiVIES. 

Two circumstances that impart importance to the birth of a Hindoo — 
Hindoo names, whence derived, and the ceremony of giving them — 
Hindoo Marriages — Courtship — Desirable qualities in a Wife — Kooleen 
Brahmins — Death — Exclamations of a Mother over a Dead Child 
— Strange Comforters — Nuisances on the Ganges — Burning of Bodies 
— Singular custom in the Northern Districts — Parsee mode vvith their 
Dead — Mohamedan Cemeteries — Also Roman Catholic — Graves of 
Foreigners — Superiority of the Gospel over Brahminism in the Dying 
Hour. 

Connected with the birth, naming, marriage, and 
death of a Hindoo, there are ceremonies of a distinc- 
tive character, with which the reader may find an in- 
terest in becoming acquainted. 

There are two circumstances which impart peculiar 
interest to the natal hour, of which the first is the 
position of the heavenly bodies at the time the event 
occurs. Respectable Hindoos keep an astrologer in 
waiting, who, so soon as informed of the birth of the 
infant, " casts its nativity, and opens the roll of its 
fate." Having drawn up a paper minutely describing 
what of weal or woe is to befall the young stranger 



PECULIAR CEREMONIES. S29 

during his present, and sometime his future life, he 
hands the same to the father, who deposits it in his 
house for reference when good or ill happens to his 
child. These family records are often of real value in 
the settlement of legal questions. The sex of the in- 
fant is the second feature of interest, and one that 
awakens no little anxiety in the mind of a native Hin- 
doo, As the male members of a family can alone per- 
form the funeral rites of a parent, the birth of a son 
awakens far different emotions than than that of a 
daughter ; the one being an occasion for chagrin and 
sorrow, the other of gratitude and delight. When the 
father first goes to see the child, if a rich man, he puts 
a silver coin in its hand, as do other wealthy relatives. 
The Hindoo mother, both before and after confinement, 
is treated with the highest consideration by her 
family, she and the infant being supplied with every- 
thing which will conduce to their comfort and health. 
When the child is a few days old, the parents 
g-ive to it a name ; generally that of a deity ^ for 
the alleged reason, that " the repetition of the names 
of the gods is meritorious, and operates like fire in 
consuming sin," The names of the lads under my 
instruction were often such as these, Krishnun, 
Rama, Narraiyanun, Gopalu, and the like, all the 
appellatives of celestials ; while others were honored 
with the titles of Pareya Swamy (great god), Chinna 
Swamy (little god), Chinna Tumbe (little brother), &c. 
Females are named after the goddesses ; as Kal6, 
Doorga, Lukshmee, Grunga ; as also titles descriptive 



230 INDIA. 

of some prominent excellence, as, the *' Beloved of 
Yishnu," the "Water-lily," and the "Beautiful." 
Some parents give an unpleasant name to a child born 
after repeated bereavements, as Dookhee (sorrowful), 
Haranu (the lost) ; the reason they assign for which 
is, that the former were such pleasant children, and 
had such sweet names, that they died through the 
envy of others. The Hindoo stands in constant awe of 
the bad passions of those around him. If a rich man 
become poor, the exclamation is at once heard, " See 
how sharp men's teeth are ! He is ruined entirely be- 
cause men could not bear to see his happiness." That 
the family descent or place of birth may be remembered, 
it is common for a Hindoo child to annex the name of 
father and residence to his own. Thus, Moothor Har- 
uppina, the son of Pareyaswamy, Narrayanun, the child 
of Madras. " Some Hindoos place two lamps on two 
names beginning with the same letter, and choose that 
over which the lamp burns most fiercely. The name 
of the stellar mansion under which the child was born, 
is often added to its common name." The ceremony 
of naming is brief and simple. The parents being 
seated on the ground, the mother having the infant in 
her arms, the officiating Brahmin hands to the father a 
plate of raw rice, upon which he writes the name of 
the child, and the name of the ruling star at its birth. 
The former is pronounced three times, and the cere- 
mony closes with an offering to the god of the dwelling, 
together with a dinner and fee to the priest. Greater 
ov less degrees of eclat attend this occasion, according 



PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 231 

to the wealth and importance of the family. The name 
of the son and the daughter (though married) remains 
unchanged through life. 

As it is intended to give, in the following chapter, a 
full description of a Hindoo wedding, the statements 
now to be made will concern only native marriages in 
general. A learned work on civil and canon law men- 
tions eight kinds of marriage, 1. When the girl is given 
to a Brahmin without reward ; 2. When she is pre- 
sented as a gift, at the close of a sacrifice ; 3. When 
two cows are received by the father in exchange for a 
bride ; 4. When the girl is given at the request of a 
Brahmin ; 5. When money is received in exchange 
for a bride ; 6. When a marriage takes place by mutual 
consent ; 7. When a bride is taken in war ; and 8. 
When a girl is taken by craft, A Hindoo, except he 
be grown up, as in a second marriage, never chooses 
his own wife. Two parents, with a view to the junc- 
tion of their estates or honors, determine upon a union 
of son and daughter, while both are but infants. The 
espousals take place while the parties are but children, 
frequently before either has reached the sixth year, 
when the affianced youth are taken to their parents' 
home, little aware of the bearing which the gaudy 
scene through which they have been conducted is to 
have upon their earthly peace. If there be no special 
reason for another course, the parent employs a person, 
called a Ghutuku, to find a suitable boy or girl for his 
child. " Many of these men are notorious flatterers 
and liars, arid in making matrimonial alliances endea- 



232 INDIA 

vor to impose in the grossest manner upon the parents 
on both sides. If the qualities of a girl are to be com- 
mended, she is declared to be beautiful as the full 
moon, of a fine figure, sweet speech, has excellent 
hair, walks gracefully, can cook, fetch water," &c. In 
this way persons are united in wedlock with the 
greatest possible difference of disposition and habit ; 
and, as a consequence, happiness is sought for else- 
where than at home, and the hours they are compelled 
to pass together are filled with recriminating words and 
acts. The pressure of this evil is greater upon the wife 
than the husband, for if she die, the survivor can 
marry again, and usually does within a few months 
after the decease of his spouse ; while she must occupy 
that most unhappy of all positions, Hindoo widowhood ; 
or must allow herself to be burned with his lifeless 
corpse. If the young man be of an age, and in cir- 
cumstances to make personal choice of a wife, he must 
have an eye to these, among other commendable 
qualities, " She must not be of a family where the 
prescribed acts of religion have been omitted — or a 
family in which there have been no sons — or a family 
in which the Yeda is not read — or a family that has 
been subject to disagreeable ailments of any kind. 
Her form must be, so far as possible, without defect — 
she must have an agreeable name — -she must walk 
gracefully, like a young elephant — her teeth must be 
moderate in size and quantity — her lips must be like 
the leaves of a mango tree — and her voice like the 
sound of a cuckoo /" As to mental and moral qualities, 



PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 233 

they are not deemed of sufficient importance to deserve 
a place in this catalogue of desirable qualities in a 
bride. As her only duties are to cook food — clean the 
house — and take care of the children, it matters little 
to a Hindoo whether his wife is amiable or morose, 
wise or ignorant, engaging or repulsive. Subserviency 
to the inclinations of the stronger sex is her supreme 
duty. Divorce is unknown among the natives of India. 
Marriages once solemnized can never be dissolved 
among persons of a reputable caste, particularly among 
Brahmins. A Hindoo may reject his wife on account 
of her incontinency, but he is obliged to support her as 
long as she lives, and wearing the tahli- (an ornament 
answering to the marriage ring) marks her as a 
wife. Polygamy is not usual in that country. 
" Where persons live with several females, but one is 
considered a lawful wife, and her children alone legiti- 
mate. The law excludes the offspring of the others 
from any share in their father's property, if he die 
without a will" (Du Bois). There is in the northern 
district a class of Brahmins with whom a matrimonial 
alliance is considered so desirable, that multitudes of 
females are willing to attach themselves to one of them, 
though at the risk of being left a hopeless widow, and 
with children to provide for b}' laborious and unwearied 
exertion. A writer before quoted mentions the names 
of five of these Kooleen Brahmins, who had in all three 
hundred and twenty-one wives, and two hundred and 
sixty children I It often occurs in these cases that a 
parent does not know his own sons and daughters. 



234 INDIA 

Death comes to the Hindoo with all its natural repul- 
sion and dismay, unrelieved by any of the consolatory 
reflections by which the gospel of Christ assuages the 
sorrows of the fatal hour. If the Hindoo die with calm- 
ness, it is often as the effect of narcotic drugs by which 
mistaken kindness would enable him to sleep away his 
being, or the yielding to an omnipotent necessity, and 
not a cheerful submission to an all-wise decree. Re- 
signation, such as the Christian feels in sorrow's darkest 
hour, is foreign to the creed as it is a stranger to the 
heart, of an idolatrous Hindoo. Hence, when a friend 
dies, the mourner uses language of reproof to us most 
strange and repulsive. Instead of raising his weeping 
eye upward, with the language of the patriarch, " The 
Lord gave, the Lord hath taken avv^ay, blessed be the 
name of the Lord," he turns to the lifeless form with 
words of upbraiding and censure. " Why," exclaims 
the weeping widow, " vv^hy, oh my husband, hast thou 
forsaken me ? What did I do to drive you hence ? 
Was I not a faithful wife ? Was I not attentive to all 
your household affairs, cooking your food, taking care 
of your children, defending your character ? Oh, why, 
why did you desert me thus cruelly, my departed one !" 
This she does with her hair dishevelled, dress carelessly 
thrown on, and beating her breast with her palms, as if 
she would drive the very breath from her frame. 
A mother overwhelmed with grief for the death of her 
child, will express herself thus : 

"Ah I my child ! where is he gone ? My child ! 

My child ! 



PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 235 

My golden image, who has taken ? My child 

My child 

He played around like a golden top. My child 

My child 

Like his face I never saw. My child 

My child 

Let fire devour the envious eye. My child 

My child 

It ever was calling, Mother, mother. My child 

My child 

It often occurs that after lamenting in this manner 
for some time, a female comes, and putting the end of 
her garment on the mouth of the mother, tries to com- 
fort her by such strange arguments as these : " Why 
do you weep ? why destroy your health ? If the child 
had been designed to be yours, it would not have died. 
This is the fruit of children ; they come to give us sor- 
row. Perhaps in a former birth you stole somebody'' s 
child^ and now your own is gone. You set the highest 
value upon him, and therefore you weep ; but if he had 
been worth any anything, he would not have left you. 
Gro, go into your house, and comfort those that are 
left. He was not your son, but an enemy sent to 
bring sorrow upon you. Why weep longer for him !" 

Passionate exclamations of a similar kind to these 
fall upon your ear almost daily, as you move through 
the streets of a Hindoo city or village. They are con- 
fined almost exclusively to the female mourners and 
the mourning women (hirelings called in to keep up 
the lamentation when the strength of the real mourner 



236 INDIA. 

is exhausted.) If the person reside sufficiently near 
the (3-anges, the dying one is carried to that sacred 
stream, that by breathing his last upon its bank, and 
then being immersed beneath its flood, he may secure 
remission and heaven. The multitudes committed to 
that stream are sources of great annoyance to the ships 
at anchor in the river, across w-hose bows and haw^sers 
they are daily entangled ; and still greater nuisances 
are they to the residents on the banks, who often re- 
tain among their servants one whose sole office is to 
thrust into the stream any dead body which may float 
ashore. The Hindoos usually burn the dead, which is 
attended with a variety of ceremonies very tedious and 
childish, I have stood for an hour observing these 
ablutions with water and oil, offerings of butter, honey, 
sugar, money, &c., genuflections and prayer, until my 
patience was exhausted, and my curiosity gratified to 
satiety. The rich mingle sandal wood with the other 
fuel of the pile, and even the poor strive to put in a 
little. This cremation, with the attendant ceremonies, 
is considered by the great mass of religious Hindoos as 
necessar}'^ to happiness after death. A few, here and 
there, follow the example of Europeans and Mohamed- 
ans in burying the dead. In some of the mountainous 
districts the inhabitants have a singular mode of dis- 
posing of a corpse. They first carefully wash the body, 
and after having prepared it for the principal process 
by a variety of ceremonies, they cast it into a huge 
mortar, where they reduce it, bones and all, to a thick 
pulp, which is rolled up into small balls. These are 



PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 237 

taken to a spot consecrated for this particular purpose, 
and strewed upon the ground, when they are instantly- 
devoured by kites, which always hover about these 
places of interment in great numbers. The Parsees, on 
the Malabar coast, have a mode of burial hardly less 
peculiar than the one just named. A circular uncov- 
ered building is erected, sometimes from fifty to sixty 
feet in diameter, and thirty feet high. It is built up 
within, leaving a parapet about one and a half yards 
high, the interim space sloping with a gentle convexity 
to the centre, where there is a well five yards broad. 
Immediately around this well are grooves, in which 
the bodies of the dead are deposited, and left exposed 
to the vultures. As soon as those voracious birds have 
stripped the bones, the surviving relatives return to the 
cemetery, and cast them into a well, whence they are 
removed at certain periods by means of subterranean 
passages, and flung into the sea. The Mohamedans 
have large cemeteries in which they bury their dead, 
erecting a neat mound of clay, or more durable mate- 
rial, over each grave, with a triangular indentation in 
it for a small lamp, which is often kept burning during 
a long succession of years. Near the city of Madras is 
a Mussulman burying-ground, several miles in cir- 
cumference, which presents a very attractive appear- 
ance at night from the light of numberless small 
lamps scattered over the extended plain. A similar 
care of their dead is taken by the Roman Catholics in 
India as elsewhere, decking them with flowers, and 
erecting a cross at the head. 



238 INDIA. 

The country is covered with white marble slabs, 
sometimes in thick clusters (as in the cemeteries of 
large towns), again, isolated at the roadside, in the field 
near the choultry, in the village, denoting the resting- 
place of an English officer, or wife, or child, or a 
missionary who had suddenly fallen a victim to that 
insalubrious climate, or bowed before the fearful 
pestilence, 

'' While foreign hands their lonely graves adorned, 
By strangers honored and by strangers mourned." 

No thoughtful person can once listen to the hopeless 
lamentation of the Hindoo when the fatal foe enters 
his dwelling ; — can once see the weeping eyes, and 
dishevelled locks, frantic beatings, and hear the 
heart-piercing outcries attendant upon that event, 
without turning with gratitude and joy to that 
Grospel which has brought " life and immortality 
to light ;" which enables its disciple to say in view of 
his own departure " Oh, death, where is thy sting — 
for me to die is gain, I long to depart and be with 
Christ," and constrains the mourner to part with the 
heart's best beloved, knowing that "he is not lost, but 
gone before." 

We are told that a Hindoo of a reflecting turn of 
mind, lay on his death-bed. As he saw himself 
about to plunge into the boundless unknown, he 
cried out, " What will become of me ?" " Oh," 
said a Brahmin who stood by, "you will inhabit 
another body." " And where," said he, " shall I go 



# PECULIAR CEREMONIES. 239 

then?" " Into another," was the reply. "And where 
then ?" " Into another, and another, and thus on 
through millions of years." Darting across this whole 
period, as though it were but an instant, he cried, 
" And where shall I go then ?" But paganism could 
not answer ; and he died with the inquiry on his lips, 
" where shall I go then V 

Reader, have you in your hand the G-ospel of the 
Son of G-od ? Be grateful for its possession and so follow 
its precepts and imbibe its spirit — that when the sum- 
mons reach your ears, " This night thy soul shall bo 
required of thee," you can say with heart-felt grati- 
tude and joy, " welcome death — welcome heaven" — or 
when called to mourn the departure of a beloved 
friend, you can repeat those words of delightful resig- 
nation — 

" Unveil thy bosom — faithful tomb 
Take this new treasure to thy trust, 
And give these sacred relics room 
To slumber iu the silent dust." 



CHAPTER XVI I. 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 



Importance of Female influence — Facts illustrating the relative position 
of women in India : (1) Grief at their birth ; (2) Subjection exacted; 
(3) Not to mention their husband's name ; (4) Not to speak of her 
husband's excellencies; (5) Not to be seen walking with him ; (6) 
Not to take food with him ; (7) Is not inquired after by guests ; and 
(8) Is not taught even the rudiments of knowledge — Remarks by a 
Hindoo writer — Life and self-immolation of Hollee Lutchema — Sup- 
pression of Sutteeism — Lord William Bentinck — Appeal. 

It were difficult to name a triter theme than that of 
female influence. What mothers, and sisters, and 
wives, have it in their power to accomplish, and what 
they do actually effect in the formation of national 
character, is one of the leading topics of the day. 
This is as it should be. " There are general laws 
which affect the whole community ; there is a common 
source from which every running stream is supplied ; 
there is a river, the streams whereof pervade and 
moisten the whole social soil." That primary and all- 
pervading principle, that common source of power, 
that ever-flowing fountain of good or ill, is female 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 241 

character and influence. The philanthropist and 
Christian will deem a volume on India very defective 
that makes not distinct and somewhat extended men- 
tion of the relative position of the females of that land. 
The subject is one upon which a volume might be 
written, while I am limited to a few pages only. My 
plan will be to state in paragraph form several facts 
respecting the relative attitude, social and public, of 
this part of Hindoo society, closing with a biographical 
illustration. 

1. The birth of a daughter, in comparison with that 
of a son, is a domestic calamity. Her mother has to 
endure ten extra days purification. No rejoicing at- 
tends her natal hour, as does that of her brother, and she 
shares not the blessing which is invoked from the 
Divine Benefactor for his prosperity and happiness. An 
English gentleman at Bombay was called upon by an 
intelligent native, who came, as he himself expressed 
it, to condole with him that the little stranger that 
had just joined the family circle was a daughter in- 
stead of a son. 

2. The supreme daty of a Hindoo female is obe- 
dience. It is a popular sentiment the country over, 
that a " woman can never be independent." Says an. 
ethical writer of elevated standing, " In childhood a 
female is to be subject to her father — in adult years to 
her husband — in. old age to her sons." We have 
before seen that she is to exercise no volition in the 
important matter of marriage, and so it is to be with 
her through life. 

11 



242 INDIA. 

3. A Hindoo wife is never, under any circumstances, 
to mention the name of her husband. " He" — " The 
Master" — " Swamy," fee, are titles she uses when 
speaking of, or to her lord. In no way can one of the 
sex annoy another more intensely and bitterly, than by 
charging her with having mentioned her husband's 
name. It is a crime not easily forgiven. 

4. When in the presence of others, it is not for a 
Hindoo wife to be talking about her partner, either by 
way of censure or commendation. 

5. A Hindoo and his wife should never be seen 
walking together in the streets, or exchanging expres- 
sions of affection in the presence of others. The sight 
of European ladies walking arm in arm with their 
husbands, strikes a native of India with surprise and 
disgust. 

6. The female members of a family never take their 
food in company with the more honored sex. They 
sit patiently by while father, husband, brother, are 
eating, and then relieve their hunger with what re- 
mains. There is no "family table," around which 
all the household, adult and young, meet to enjoy the 
blessings of Divine Providence. 

7. A guest never inquires after the health of the 
wife of his host. If absent, she is not asked for ; if 
she enters, no salutations greet her ; if present, she is 
unnoticed. The more respectable the family for 
wealth and rank, the mora rigid is the observance of 
this rule. 

8. Hindoo females are allowed to remain in profoujid 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 243 

ignorance of all literature and science, India abounds 
with schools for boys, but none for girls. It is a 
popular adage that if a woman learn to read, she will 
become a widow ! This may have been invented to 
deter her from so doing, as she would avoid what 
might by any possibility lead to that deepest evil — 
widowhood. Another and the real reason for this 
prohibition is, that they may feel their inferiority 
and be kept more easily in subjection Pitiful, 
indeed, is the sight of persons, beautiful in figure, 
graceful and engaging in attitude and move- 
ment, yet so profoundly ignorant as not to under- 
stand the first letter of the alphabet, and unable to 
converse upon any subjects but those of the most 
physical and commonplace character. The Shastras 
themselves declare that a woman has nothing to do 
with the text of the vedas : all her duties being com- 
prised in pleasing her husband and cherishing her 
children. A few (like Ovviyar, sister of Tiruvaluvar, 
author of the Cural), have arisen above this national 
prejudice and become quite eminent in the world of 
letters, but the instances are very few. 

9. The directions and statements of the sacred 
books of India cannot but exeit a destructive effect 
upon her in respect to all attempts at mental and 
moral elevation. They are such as these : "A woman 
is not allowed to go out of the touse without consent 
of her husband ; nor to laugh without a veil over her 
face ; nor to stand at the door ; nor to look out at the 
window. She is like a heifer on the plain, that still 



244 INDIA. 

longs for fresh grass. Infidelity, violence, deceit, 
envy, and viciousness are all her's. She was made 
for servitude to her husband. She has no fitness for 
his equal companionship." These are indices of the 
native mind upon the social position of the female 
sex. 

From all these circumstances arises the state of 
female society, so well described by a native Hindoo 
in a late prize essay : " The Hindoo mother is in- 
capable of conferring on her children, in any measure, 
the blessings of education, and never dreams of train- 
ing them up in ' the way they should go.' As to 
exercising a salutary influence and discipline over 
them — her own ideas of moral responsibility being 
vague — she expresses no solicitude about their actions 
being governed by principles ; and since scarcely any 
of those crimes to which humanity is most prone, are 
held disreputable in Hindoo society, she seldom feels 
anxious to guard them against leading impure lives. 
She allows them to strengthen and grow up in im- 
moral habits (such as lying, obscene language, and 
the like), and can form no idea of subjecting them to 
a course of moral restraint. Nor are her children only 
passively suffered to grow wild in a moral and intel- 
lectual point of view, but they are actually taught 
things which their tutors would afterwards have them 
unlearn. She scruples not to avail herself of false 
promises and threats in the management of them ; and 
is not very cautious in avoiding the use of indelicate 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 245 

language in their hearing." Such is the picture 
drawn by a Hindoo's pen. The writer, a person 
of high caste — one well-instructed in the books of 
his nation, and well-advised as to the opinions he 
uttered. 

I will now invite the reader's attention to an abridged 
sketch of female character, drawn by an eloquent 
writer — Dr. J. Massie — himself, for several years, a 
missionary at Bangalore 

Hollee Lutchema was the daughter of parents com- 
paratively affluent. Her infancy was succeeded by a 
few short years of ripening childhood, which rapidly 
glided away ; and, during which, all the education 
she received, was limited by the pitiable circle of 
childish amusements and domestic duties. She was 
taught to speak, to wash her teeth, to bind on her 
cloth, to walk gracefully, to ornament the entrance of 
the dwelling; — an embellishment, in which great pride 
is felt, and which is performed according to various 
heathen devices designed on the earth with conse- 
crated powder, skilfully dropped through the fingers. 
It was a period of undisturbed mental gloom ; no 
means were used to inspire her with a love of knowl- 
edge — no plans were followed to expand her mind. 
If she had few sorrows to endure, or sufferings to re- 
member, she had, also, few pleasures to anticipate, 
and few hopes to cherish. Over her future years hung 
a cloud of mingled and obscure uncertainty ; nor was 
there any friendly hand to lift the veil or shed a light 
upon her path. Once she heard some communings 



246 INDIA. 

and negotiations about marriage ; but the matter was 
altogether unintelligible to her, and the personal feel- 
ing, she could experience at the moment, was so un- 
interesting, that she had no anxiety to know her 
destined bridegroom, or be introduced to his family 
and friends. Her time passed heedlessly over, and as 
the period drew near when a woman's feelings and 
predilections took possession of her bosom, she learned 
that her hand had been bestowed, and her affections 
bartered for a piece of gold. The ceremony of mar- 
riage, in the preliminary stage, was now performed, 
and the alliance ratified by the accustomed rites ; she 
was presented, but not yet rendered up to him, who 
was to be vested with the dominion of her person, 
and entitled to her homage and subjection. There 
had been no exercise of choice on either part, nor mu- 
tual affection — designed to be a slave, she had not 
been wooed as the object of a tender attachment. 
She remained now as the betrothed wife, in her father's 
house, and in subjection to her parents, till con- 
venience or caprice led to a consummation of the 
domestic union. 

Youthful and pleasing, with certain undefined ideas 
of marriage, but no relative sympathy and reciprocal 
confidence, she was conducted through the pageantry 
and ceremonial of the festive day. Many and tire- 
some were the ceremonies observed at her espousal. 
While her bridegroom was being received, by her 
father, with all the rites of hospitality, three vessels 
of water were emptied on her head, and accompanied 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 247 

by prayers, usual to the occasion, but too indelicate 
for insertion here ; their hands then, having been 
rubbed by an auspicious drug, were placed, hers in his, 
and bound, by a matron, with sacred grass, amidst the 
sounds of cheerful music. The attendant priests were 
directed by her father to utter their acclamations, 
while he poured water from a vessel, containing fra- 
grant grasses, upon the hands of the united pair ; and 
pronouncing their names, as well as his own, he ap- 
pealed to " Grod the Existent," and said, " I give unto 
thee this damsel, adorned with jewels, and protected 
by the Lord of creatures ;" to which the bridegroom 
replied, "Well be it." The father of Hollee here pre- 
sented Soobarao with a piece of gold, a text from the 
Veda was recited, and the affianced parties walked 
forth, while the bridegroom addressed to her the first 
expressions of their intercourse, — " May the regents 
of space, may air, the sun, and fire, dispel that anxi- 
ety which thou feelest in thy mind, and turn thy 
heart to me. Be gentle in thy aspect, and loy- 
al to thy husband — be fortunate in cattle, am- 
iable in thy mind, and beautiful in thy person — be 
mother of valiant sons — be fond of delights — be 
cheerful, and bring prosperity to us and ours." 
The skirts of her mantle were knotted together with 
his by her father, who enjoined them to "be insepara- 
bly united in matters of duty, wealth, and love." 
Fatiguing and trivial were the many subsequent 
ceremonies. Sacrificial fires were lighted up, jars of 
purifying water were arranged, handsful of rice were 



248 INDIA. 

prepared, and many formalities of expression were 
recited, while the bride was clothed with a new waist- 
cloth and scarf; oblations of clarified butter were 
made to the fire, the moon, and the world, during 
which the bride was first made to stand, and then to 
sit upon a mat prepared for the purpose. A stone 
being placed before her, she, with her hands joined in 
a hollow form was made to tread upon it with the 
toes of her right foot, during this address of the bride- 
groom, " Ascend this stone — be firm lil^e this stone — 
distress my foe, and be not subservient to my enemy." 
The rice, which had been previously consecrated, was 
now repeatedly placed in her hands and mixed with 
butter ; and she according to direction opened her 
hands allowing it to fall into the fire. Now followed 
the most emphatic symbol of the ceremony — being 
conducted to the bridegroom, he directed her to step 
successively into seven circles, while seven texts were 
repeated,, and the moment in which the seventh circle 
was trod upon, was declared the consummation of the 
nuptial bond, which was now complete and irrevocable. 
A friend holding one of the jars of water, approached 
them, and poured the contents upon him and her ; 
again were their hands joined and sanctioned by sacred 
texts. Such a marriage verily retjuired the prescrip- 
tions of a ritual and the spiritual directions of a priest. 
Surely if oblations and the precise observance of pre- 
scribed ceremonies could have insured happiness and 
prosperity, Hollee Lutchema might have looked for- 



WONAN IN INDIA. 249 

ward to many days of uninterrupted enjoyment and 
peace ; but alas ! how vain and delusive. 

The natural reserve and restraint of her temper un- 
der circumstances so novel, at first perceptible in her 
intercourse with him who had taken her into such in- 
timate relationship, gradually subsided ; freedom of 
manner toward him, however, could never be accom- 
panied with mutual confidence. She had not been 
trained to be an intelligent associate, and he had not 
sought an helper and equal who would accompany him 
in the ways of wisdom, and cheer him in affliction. 
The playfulness of sprightly youth, and the soft sweet- 
ness of so young a female, were soon abated, familiarity, 
characterized by their intercourse, speedily rendered 
unattractive her blandest smile. Caprice, selfishness, 
and an undue estimate, either of the female character, 
or of the circumstances under which Hollee had been 
tutored, the low standard fixed for woman's attractions 
or merits, and the example which had been exhibited 
in his father's house, conspired, along with occasional 
disappointments, to subvert any youthful affection 
which had primarily been excited under auspices such 
as we have described. Unaccustomed to rule her own 
spirit, or to seek the enlargement of her own mind, the 
first interview had showed her to the most advantage, 
and there remained no hidden excellences to be devel- 
oped — no resources of enjoyment which had not at the 
first moment been presented. Ill-informed himself, her 
husband had not calculated on unseen defects, or the 
partial exhibition which a mere exterior would furnish 
11* 



250 INDIA. 

amidst the peculiar circumstances of their first ac- 
quaintance. He soon became discontented, irritable, 
and violent ; his requests were uttered with authority, 
and his commands were enforced with the severity of 
exaction. Speedily the connexion became one of bitter 
rule and reluctant subjection ; while the untoward 
captive could ill- brook the lordly despotism which 
governed her as a slave. Yet there were moments in 
which the iron yoke relaxed, and when the silken 
cords of love were felt ; when woman's power held 
captive the imperious tyrant ; the bond of natural af- 
fection and the sympathies of our better nature pre- 
vailing, realized to them the sweets of domestic union. 
Such were, however, like angel visits, few and far be- 
tween. Years rolled on, the freshness of youth de- 
cayed, the cares of a family accumulated upon them, 
and became a burden more to the mother than to her 
professed companion. There had been in her a natural 
ardor and a genial kindness of disposition, which, had 
they been cherished by education and religion, might 
have expanded into the fair fruits of a generous, bene- 
volent, and useful character. She often had felt a 
clinging to him as the stay of her youth ; and even in 
the hours of discord would the yearnings of her heart 
be toward him who should have proved the kindred 
associate of her riper years. She had no knowledge of 
anything for which she should live better than her 
husband and her personal enjoyment ; but death waits 
not our pleasure and convenience. His pale face in- 
vades the dwelling of the Hindoo with even more hasty 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 251 

steps and appalling look than where a better religion 
prevails. Hollee's husband was visited with sickness, 
which, despite her earnest prayers and the skill of the 
village doctor, made fearful inroads on his strength. 
She attended him with incessant care — wept and made 
supplication to her gods — but all in vain ; for when 
least prepared for the event, he expired ! It required 
at that moment but little external excitement or per- 
suasion to awaken a wish that she had died with him. 
She knew the dreary widowhood before her — no re- 
sources had she to sustain her agonized mind — no friend 
to say to her, Live ! She looked on the right hand, and 
the priest was standing to direct her to the only refuge 
he deemed accessible — the holy funeral pile I She 
looked to the left, and there those who superstitiously 
imagined they might share in the benefit of her immo- 
lation and the honor of her sacrifice, or otherwise be 
burdened by her maintenance, were waiting, nay 
pressing forward to urge her adoption of the priestly 
counsel. She looked forward, but gloom impenetrable 
hung over her path. She cast her eyes upward, but 
the heavens were sackcloth, and the sun blood. She 
turned within, and here bewildered with agitation, over- 
whelmed with grief, flesh and heart failed her, and in her 
paroxysm of sorrow she embraced the purpose, and ut- 
tered the irrevocable vow of immolation. Now the 
priest thanked Nurraian ; the relatives expressed their 
joyful gratitude ; and the means of sustaining her re- 
solution, of lulling her fears, and strengthening her at- 
tachment to the deceased, were lavishly employed. Her 



252 INDIA. 

children were removed from her sight, stupifying drugs 
were abundantly administered, her body was perfumed, 
her hair saturated with oil, her head covered with san- 
dal dust, garlands of flowers were presented as her 
ornaments, and she was hailed a favorite of the gods ! 
A crier was employed to announce her pious resolution, 
and the time of the sacrifice. The intelligence was 
sent to me, with a solicitation from a friend that I 
would attend. It was an hour and a half before sun- 
set when we reached the place of ungodly sacrifice. 
The husband was covered with clothes, and laid upon 
a bier made from unpeeled branches of trees, and with- 
out ornament. It had been carried thither on the 
shoulders of men, and placed in a circle formed by the 
officiating priests, the victim, the near relatives and 
kindred, and such as were approaching to obtain the 
last benediction of Hollee. She was attired in a sal- 
mon-colored cloth, and her skin was deeply tinged with 
saffron. She was bent forward, as if laboring under 
an oppressive burden ; or rather, as if inward anxiety 
and anguish had bowed her down ; yet she seemed to 
smile. It was the smile of sorrow — the expression of 
a heart which had conquered nature and burst the 
bonds of life itself A red line was drawn from the 
root of her hair to the ridge of her nose ; it seemed to 
me the mark of suicide. Beside her were bunches of 
flowers, clothes, cocoanuts, pounded spices and money, 
which she distributed to the female friends who came 
soliciting her favors. She was attended by two Brah- 
mins, one of whom held an olla book, from which he 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 253 

read sentences for her direction and comfort, at times 
assisted by his associate. "While the poor woman and 
priest were thus engaged, others were employed in 
preparing the pile, which was constructed of dried 
wood in the shape of an oblong square, upon which 
were heaped combustible faggots to the height of four 
feet from the base. A stout branch of a tree was fixed 
in the earth at each corner, which suspended a canopy 
of heavy boughs at about three feet elevation. After 
the corpse was placed upon the pile, Hollee was led 
around it by a priest, and then walked twice around it 
alone ; kneeling by the right side a few seconds, and 
then mounted and lay down to the left of the deceased. 
Deliberately she composed herself ; her infant child 
was placed in her arms for a moment and embraced ; 
she saluted her mother, and called her sister to 
whom she delivered her jewels ; then having loosened 
her garments, she drew her cloth over her head and 
laid herself down beside her husband with such calm- 
ness as if it had been but for a night's repose. They 
then covered her with straw, and poured oil and 
melted butter over all parts of the pile, the extremities 
of which were now lighted by the eldest male relative 
of the family. The straw fanned by the wind was at 
first suffered only to roll thick volumes of smoke over 
her, and then the suspended canopy, cut down by the 
attending officers, fell upon her with its heavy crushing 
weight ! The poor woman had hitherto remained 
silent, but when the flames had reached her she 
shrieked and screamed for help with piteous and heart- 



254 INDIA, 

rending exclamations. The Brahmin assured the 
people that she ivas now in communion with her god, 
while the forlorn mother, overwhelmed with grief, 
was rolling herself, tearing her hair, beating her 
breast, and leaping with frantic bursts of passion, 
striving to throw herself on the altar of her daughter's 
sacrifice and destruction. The scene was closed by the 
fierceness of the flame, which drove the bystanders to 
a distance, and forced even the priests to retire, while 
the victim was yet uttering the moan of helpless suf- 
fering. Thus was offered upon the altar of that san- 
guinary superstition the infatuated Hollee Lutchema." 
Such scenes as this, but ofttimes far more sickening 
in their detail, have been enacted throughout India 
from a period that goes back into the unknown past. 
While the subject of its suppression by British autho- 
rity was under discussion, and means were being taken 
to arouse the public mind of England to the character 
of the custom, steps were pursued to ascertain, with 
all possible precision, the number of annual immola- 
tions. From official returns for the year 1818, it ap- 
pears that eight hundred were thus sacrificed during 
that year alone ; making, with the addition of the 
other two Presidencies, and the vast Punjaub, which 
was not then under British rule, at least three thou- 
sand ! It was not till Lord William Bentinck ascended 
the vice-regal throne of India, that the mandate was 
issued against these scenes of suicide and murder. 

" Yes, child of Brahma, then was mercy nigh, 
To wash the stain of blood's eternal die ; 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 255 

Peace did descend to triumph and to save, 
When noble Bentinck crossed the Indian wave." 

And yet, though the instances are far less numerous 
and the exhibitions less public than they once were, it 
is known that the funeral pile still sends up its lurid 
flame, and the trembling wife still submits to its fatal 
torture in many parts of the country. And so will 
they till the Sacred Scriptures come in to supplant 
the Vedas in their teaching and spirit. And who 
would not pray for the coming of that time ? Reader, 
will you ? And to your prayers will you add your 
endeavors to put them in possession of that volume 
which says, " Leave thy fatherless children and I will 
protect them, and let thy widows trust in me." 



CHAP TER XVIII. 

HINDOO CASTE. 

Definition of Caste — Four-fold division — Origin and duties of Brahmins, 
Kshatiras, Veishas, and Soodras — Pariars— Six facts illustrating the 
evil influence of Caste upon its adherents — Its anti-social and anti- 
benevolent character — A barrier to the progress of Christian truth— 
A convert at Calcutta — Apology by Abbe Du Bois^Early Views of 
Swartz, Bishop Heber, &c. — Action of Bishop Wilson and Modern 
Missionaries — Caste doomed, and what is now expected of all converts 
to Christianity. 

The word caste is a Portuguese terra, which has 
been adopted to denote the different divisions of Hin- 
doo Society. These are four in number — Brahmins, 
Kshatiras, Veishas, and Soodras, with various sub- 
divisions under each general class. A brief explana- 
tion of each order, with a few remarks and facts 
illustrative of the whole subject, is all that can now 
be given. 

At the time the Vedas dropped from the mouth of 
the exalted Brahma, there were produced from the 
same facial orifice, the Brahmins ; indicating thereby 



HINDOO CASTE. 257 

that their position in community was to be preeminent 
in sacredness and honor, and that their duties were to 
concern religious doctrine and ceremony. The Sraritees 
assign to Brahmins the offering of sacrifices ; the offices 
of the priesthood ; the study of the Vedas ; explaining 
the Shastras ; giving alms ; and receiving presents. 
Such is their exalted position, that to injure a Brahmin, 
was the last of pardonable offences. Whatever part 
of the body was used in harming one of the privileged 
class, that part was, at once, to be removed ; while to 
do a beneficent act to this deified personage, would 
atone for almost every sin, and secure the highest 
commendation and merit. Such was their exalted 
position, that the Peishwa, at the head of the Mah- 
ratta confederacy, who held the most commanding 
station of any Indian sovereign, was long excluded 
from eating at table with any Brahmin of high caste. 
Their peculiarity of dress is the poita, cr sacred 
string, which all of this class wear over one shoulder 
and under the opposite arm, and which none but the 
hands of the " twice horrC are allowed to touch. 

There has been a wonderful lowering of Brahmini- 
cal pride and dignity since the conquest of the coun- 
try by Europeans. While thousands are attached to 
the temples, and subsist upon the revenues of ecclesi- 
astical lands, others are employed in courts of justice, 
as pundits to foreigners in the acquisition of the lan- 
guage, as merchants, accountants, and even as farmers 
and soldiers. But, still, as a class, they stand, by 
universal acknowledgment, first in Hindoo society. 



. 258 INDIA. 

From the arm of Brahma sprang the Kshatiras, 
who were created to "protect the earth, the cattle, 
and Brahmins." Kings, governors, all to whom are 
entrusted civil and military affairs, belong to this 
class. 

Then followed the Veishas, who were produced from 
the thig'hs of the Supreme, and have, as their as- 
signed vocation, to provide the necessaries of life by 
agriculture and traffic. They are the farmers and mer- 
chants of the land. 

While last of the four, are the Soodras, the off- 
spring of the feet of Deity, as denoting the servile 
pursuits to which they are to devote themselves. 

In addition to these, there are the Pariars, who are 
esteemed the " outcasts of society, the refuse of man- 
kind, — the men of infamy and degradation — persons 
with whom the least of any of the preceding castes 
will have no intercourse, being consigned to igno- 
miny and subjection forever." 

" Is caste a civil or religious institution ?" Both, I 
answer; but eminently the latter. The distinctions it 
establishes are of Divine decree, and subjects of sacred 
record. Its effects upon all social relations are imme- 
diate and direct, but without the religious element it 
could not have retained its vitality so long, and pro- 
duced such results as we now witness. 

In the place of farther didactic statement, I will pre- 
sent the reader with several facts and occurrences by 
which he may judge of the strong hold this system 



HINDOO CASTE. 259 

has upon the Hindoos, and the inhuman results with 
which it is often attended, 

I. "I once happened to be present when a sepoy 
of high caste, falling down in a faint, the military 
surgeon ordered one of the Pariah attendants of the 
hospital to throw some water upon him, in consequence 
of which, none of his class would associate with him, 
because he had forfeited the privileges of his clanship. 
The result was that, soon after, he put the muzzle to 
his head, and blew out his brains." 

II. "I once saw a high caste Hindoo dash an earth- 
en jar of milk upon the ground, and break it to atoms, 
merely because the shadow of a Pariah had fallen 
upon it as he passed^ 

III. "As I entered the dwelling, I saw, lying upon 
the centre of the floor, a man of middle age, appa- 
rently near his end, while at a little distance was his 
wife, much in the same state. A little girl was kneel- 
ing at their side, asking, in an earnest, bitter tone, 
for rice. I called to a servant, who had accompanied 
me, to bring a basket of provisions, which I opened 
before the child, when the unhappy father, turning his 
eye upon me with a look of horror, threw out his arms 
like a maniac, seized the famishing creature, dragged 
it from the polluted food, and fell back dead." 

IV. " Shortly after our arrival at Bangalore, the roof 
of our house was under repair ; and one of the brick- 
layers fell from a great height, and was much injured. 
To relieve the sufferer, we called upon the workmen, 
standing near, to run to the well and bring some 



260 INDIA. 

water. Not one of them would stir ; for, said they, 
that man is not of our caste, and we are not allowed 
to give him water." 

Y. A Kshratiya, whose son had rejected caste, sought 
an asylum at that son's house, just before death ; yet 
so strong were the prejudices of caste, that the old 
man would not eat from the hands of his own son, 
but crawled, on his hands and knees, to the house of 
a neighbor, and received food from entire strangers, 
rather than from his own child, though, then, on the 
brink of eternity. 

VI. Several buildings were on fire in Madras, and 
which threatened a general conflagration of the city. 
There were several wells near at hand, but the Brah- 
mins forbade the use of the water, lest a person of 
lower caste than themselves, should approach, and thus 
pollute them. 

These instances might be greatly multiplied, but 
they are sufficient for the purpose now in hand. They 
illustrate the dissocial, selfish, and unmerciful charac- 
ter of this institution. Some have supposed that the 
system is productive of benefit, as it respects mechan- 
ical operations ; because an employment descends from 
father to son, through successive generations ; but ex- 
perience disproves this theory. The fabrics and orna- 
ments of India are, many of them, very beautiful, and 
justly admired ; but there have been no improvements 
for centuries past. There is no invention, no discovery, 
no progress in workmanship throughout that country, 
as in lands where no such system exists. Caste 



HINDOO CASTE. 261 

is a foe to all generous and noble feeling. It binds, 
in chains of adamant, a large portion of every com- 
munity, saying to them : " You proceeded from the 
feet of Brahma ; you are created for servitude." It 
limits the social circle to a comparatively few persons, 
to the careful exclusion of all the rest, however worthy 
in character and commendable in deportment. A 
Brahmin would sooner see a Soodra die than give him 
food, if, in so doing, he must touch the body or clothes 
of the debased one. It is said that a company of the 
professed teachers of right and duty will stand upon 
the river's bank, and see a boat load of Pariars go to 
the bottom, rather than use any personal effort to save 
them from death. And how ungodlike, unchristian, 
too! The Bible directs that we "do to others as we 
would have them do to us ;" and commends the Sa- 
maritan, who bound up the bleeding sufferer, while it 
condemns the Levite, who, (Brahmin like,) would let 
him die of his wounds. Caste has done more than 
aught else to make India what it is, a land of limited 
attainments, selfish propensities, and grovelling aims. 
" If a Brahmin break caste, can he regain it ?" Not 
generally, but it has been done. After the establish- 
ment of the English power in Bengal, the caste of a 
Brahmin was destroyed by an European, who forced 
into his mouth, flesh, spirits, &c. After remaining 
three years an outcast, great efforts were made, at an 
expense of 80,000 rupees, ($40,000,) to regain his 
rank, but in vain. After a time, an expense of two 
lacs more, ($100,000,) were incurred, when he was 



262 INDIA. 

restored to his friends. About the year 1802, a per- 
son, in Calcutta, expended in feasting and presents to 
Brahmins, 50,000 rupees, ($25,000,) to obtain his lost 
rank. Other methods have of late been discovered, 
but the lapsed ones never become what they formerly 
were in public estimation, sanctity and honor. The 
stain, though not so visible as before these gifts and 
atonements, is not wholly washed out. " In some 
parts of the country, the inhabitants do things with 
impunity, which in other sections would cause the 
loss of caste. In the upper provinces, the regula- 
tions regarding eating, are far less regarded than 
in Bengal ; while other features are guarded with 
greater anxiety." 

It will occur to my reader that caste presents a 
formidable barrier to the progress and triumph of 
Christianity in India. It does so ; one of the most 
formidable that can be named or conceived. It pre- 
vents the Christian teacher from gaining that free 
and familiar intercourse with the people, so important 
in securing for the truth deliberate examination, and 
an impartial judgment. All foreigners are considered 
as belonging to the lowest class, and are, therefore, for- 
bidden that social intercourse at the table and in the 
family, which furnishes so favorable an occasion for 
giving a personal direction to his public instructions. 
The state of heart produced by this institution is un- 
favorable to the reception of Bible doctrine and spirit. 
When a Hindoo enters a place of worship, his first ob- 
ject is to secure a seat where he shall be sure of avoid- 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 263 

ing a contact with persons of a lower grade than him- 
self. He is solicitous, in the extreme, to allow no part 
of his dress to touch that of one descended from less 
honored parentage. How opposed is such a disposition 
to that humble and contrite spirit with which the Most 
High delights to dwell ! 

It presents a formidable barrier in the way of con- 
fessing the name of Christ and becoming his disciple. 
To " lose caste " is, to the native of India, one of the 
most dreaded of evils. It is renunciation of friend- 
ships, intimate and long existent, of honors enjoyed 
through a succession of years, and, until lately, an 
entire of the paternal estate and inherited wealth. A 
person may be wicked, profane, devoid of every good 
principle, and an abandoned profligate, and yet, as a 
Hindoo, may enjoy all the privileges of his caste; but 
the moment he violates any of its rules by eating 
with one of another class, by journeying to a distant 
country to extend his observation of men and things, 
by dealing in articles which the Shastras prohibit, by 
examining into the claims of another system of religious 
belief than his own and then espousing it — that mo- 
ment he exposes himself to the most dreadful denuncia- 
tions. " No persons can receive the miscreant into their 
houses, or hold any intercourse with him ; every one 
agrees to cover him with ridicule, contempt and dis- 
dain ; to be seen with him would* be deemed a crime 
worthy of reprehension ; the woman to whom he was 
betrothed would not be allowed to marry him ; all de- 
nounce him as the veriest vagabond, and his parents 



264 INDIA. 

and friends must be the first to disown him, and 
shower curses on his head." The barrier this opposes 
to an examination of the truth, and, above all, to 
its espousal, will occur to every reader. If a Hindoo 
be convinced that the Bible is Heaven-descended, 
he must become a martyr the same hour he becomes 
a public and declared believer. He must literally 
" forsake all," to become a Christian. While this 
has, no doubt, kept back many from making a pro- 
fession of faith and attachment, who would otherwise 
have become formalists and hypocrites, it has deterred 
others who are sincere inquirers after truth from pur- 
suing their investigations, and, farther still, from obey- 
ing the decisions of their judgment, and convictions 
of conscience. A single case must suffice, by way 
of illustration : — " Naraputsingh, a convert in Bengal, 
during the days of his heathenism, lived like a nabob, 
with his train of servants, and splendor of oriental 
equipage. But the moment he submitted to the ordi- 
nance of baptism, and embraced the truth, his rela- 
tives seized upon his property, to the amount of 
$40,000, since which time he has been laboring for 
the support of himself and family, at $5 per month. 
The Abbe Dubois has a long chapter in advocacy of 
this system, as that by which India kept up her 
head when all Europe was plunged in barbarism, pre- 
served and extended the arts, the sciences and civili- 
zation ; " but the farther my observation extended, 
when a resident of that country, and the more I have 
learned, through the remarks and pages of others, the 



WOMAN IN INDIA. 265 

more deeply I am convinced that it is an evil, vi^ith 
scarcely a feature to relieve its bitterness — with 
hardly a ray to cheer its darkness. For a time, it was 
to an extent allowed in the Christian churches, from 
the impression of its social character, and therefore 
beyond the pale of direct ecclesiastical direction. The 
eminent Swartz and his colleagues, and the amiable 
Heber, were so disposed to regard and treat it. But 
when we see one communicant refusing the sacra- 
mental cup because it had touched the lips of one of 
lower birth — or a Christian catechist declining to call 
upon a fellow disciple, only because of his less honored 
origin — or a professed follower of Christ absenting 
himself from a "love feast," only because the food 
may have been prepared by the same person who 
served his own religious teacher, it is surely quite 
time for the Church to interfere, and say, with kind- 
ness, yet decision, these things ought not, cannot so 
remain — this is not the spirit of the G-ospel, and must 
be eschewed by all who "name the name of ChrisSit." 
And such is the present decision and action. The 
Bishop of Calcutta, Dr. Wilscu,, has spoken boldly, 
and with authority — some may say, with a little too 
much severity — and yet other churches are coming 
round to his views. As a system, it will henceforth 
find no favor with the promoters of Christianity in 
that land. He who would become a Christian must 
renounce caste heartily and practically. Not that he 
will be compelled to intermarry with those of lower 

social grades, or be upon terras of familiar ir^tercqursQ 
12 ' " 



266 INDIA. 

with Soodras and Pariars — but he will not regard 
himself as by right of birth their superior in moral 
excellence, or entitled by a divine decree to immuni- 
ties and prerogatives which they are forever denied. 
He must be willing to say, with conscious honesty, 

Ye ABE MY BRETHREN ALL. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 

Design of the Chapter — Brahm — Brahma — Vishnu^Siva — Ganesa — 
Supramunman — Doorga — Kalee — Latchmi — Sarasvati — Munmuthan 
— Indru — Sooryu — Kartikeya — Pavuna — Vuroona — Yumu — Weak- 
ness of them all — Immorality — Character of the worshippers — What 
can elevate India— Appeal to the Reader. 

It is intended, in the present chapter, to present the 
reader with a brief view of Hindooism, as a system of 
revealed religion. India has its sacred Vedas and 
Shastras, which claim to communicate all that need 
be known regarding the character of the Supreme, with 
the modes of performing acceptable worship, and of 
securing the divine blessing. These ancient and vo- 
luminous records teach the existence of one universal 
Spirit, the fount and origin of all other beings, ani- 
mate or inanimate, material or immaterial. To this 
supreme Divinity is given the incommunicable name 
of Brahm ; a noun in the neuter gender, as indicating 
the negative mode of his existence, and to be distin- 
guished from Brahma, the distinctive title of the firs^ 



268 INDIA. 

in the Hindoo Triad. Of this great, self-existent, in- 
dependent, and eternal One, we are told in the Shas- 
tras that he resides in perpetual silence, takes no 
interest in the affairs of the universe, finding his hap- 
piness in undisturbed repose. They add, that though 
all spirit and without form, he is devoid of qualities, 
without will, without consciousness of his own exist- 
ence, immersed in an abyss of unrelieved darkness and 
gloom. He is one, say they, not genericaUy, as pos- 
sessed of a divine nature ; not hypostatically, as simple 
and uncompounded ; not numerically, as the only ac- 
tual deity, but the sole entity, whether created or un- 
created. " His oneness is so absolute, that it not only 
excludes the possibility of any other god, co-ordinate 
and subordinate, but excludes the possibility of aught 
else, human or angelic, material or immaterial." He 
is thus, as one well says, an " infinite negative — an 
infinite nothing.''^ This is the supreme deity of that 
land, mysterious, unapproachable, indescribable — in 
truth, unintelligible ; and whom deists and infidels have 
boastfully referred to as the counterpart of Jehovah ; 
but from whom, by the absence of all moral qualities, 
all supervision of human affairs, all intelligent and 
worthy attributes, he is placed at a remove immeasur- 
able, infinite. The Hindoos are not atheists in the 
sense of a chance creation of all beings and things. 
Their system is rather, in its original state, refined and 
sublimated Pantheism, all visible things being but 
manifestations of his essence. With a verbal change, 
we may adopt the poet's couplet : 



RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 269 

" All are but parts of this mysterious whole, 
Whose body nature is, and Brahtn the soul." 

The authors of the Hindoo system, like the Grrecian 
philosophers, found a difficulty in conceiving how pure 
spirit could exert any energy, and especially an energy 
sufficient to form a world. When, therefore, the su- 
preme Brahra willed to create the world, he drew forth 
from himself three hypostases, to which were given 
the names of Brahma, Yishnu, and Siva. These con- 
stitute the celebrated Hindoo Triad, of whom the 
sacred books declare that " They were originally united 
in one essence and from one essence were derived, and 
that the great One became distinctly known as three 
gods, being one person and three gods." It may in- 
terest the reader to have a fuller acquaintance with 
the history of these divine personages. 

BRAHMA. 

This deity is usually represented as a man with four 
faces, riding on a swan, and holding in one of his four 
hands a portion of the Vedas ; in the second, a pot of 
water ; while the third is raised upward to indicate 
protection ; and the fourth declined downward, as be- 
stowing a gift. He is variously styled the " self-ex- 
istent" (falsely though, for he sprang from Brahm), the 
" great father," the " lord of creatures," and, more 
appropriately, the " creator." He is reputed to have 
had originally five heads, having lost one for a reason 
upon which his biographers are divided in opinion. 
That given in the Skanda Purana is as follows : " The 



270 INDIA. 

linga (or sacred symbol) of Siva fell by the curse of a 
Rishi from heaven, and increased in such height that 
it filled heaven and hell. In order to see it, Brahma, 
Vishnu, and the other gods assembled, and in the 
midst of their wonder they called out, " Who can reach, 
to its extremity ?" Vishnu descended to hell, ariti 
Brahma went upwards ; but neither search pr6ved 
successful. Brahma, under the influence of shame, 
hired the cow kama and the tree ketaku as false wit- 
nesses, and asserted three times that he had seen the 
end. The gods, knowing the falsehood of his declara- 
tion, deprived him by their curse of all worship, and 
Siva cut off one of his heads." Be the cause what it 
may, there is but one temple to his honor erected in 
the land, and he receives less direct reverence than 
almost any of the celestials. 

VISHNU. 

This second of the Trimurti, or Triad, appears as a 
blue man, riding on a skate, and holding in his four 
hands a war-club, conch shell, a weapon called chakra, 
and a water-lily. He has other names, as Narayana, 
Prumahl, &c., and is worshipped as the Pervader, or 
the personification of the preserving principle. The 
Puranas mention ten avatars, descents, or incarnations 
of this god, of which nine are these, di fish, a tortoise, 
a boar, a man-monster, a dwarf, a giant, Rama (hero 
of Ramayanam), Krshna, Budha, and the tenth, which 
is still expected, a white horse. On each visit wonders 
were performed, which we cannot even allude to for 



RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 271 

want of room. His moral (?) character appears from 
this incident. When the sea was churned to recover 
the ambrosia (Mount Mandra being the churning stick, 
a five-headed snake, Vaysooke, the rope, and the de- 
mons called Asuras the workmen), Akabai and 
Lakshmi, two maiden sisters, arose at the same time, 
Vishnu perceiving Lakshmi to be the more beautiful, 
wished to marry her ; but not being able to accomplish 
the object until the elder was disposed of, he deceived 
the Rishi Uddakala as to Akabai's beauty and excel- 
lences, which induced him to marry her, while he es- 
poused the woman of his choice. The followers of this 
divinity form one of the twofold divisions of Hindoo 
society — the Yishnuvites. 

SIVA. 

This destroyer of mankind is seen as a silver colored 
man, with five heads and eight hands, in six of which 
are severally a skull, a deer, fire, an axe, a rosary, and 
and an elephant rod, while the seventh is open in the 
attitude of blessing, and the last of protecting. He 
has a third eye in his forehead, "with perpendicular cor- 
ners, ear-rings of snakes, and a collar of skulls. At 
the end of each series of the four yoogas, Siva drowns, 
and then remodels the earth ; his name being more 
properly the new-modeller, or reproducer. One form 
in which this deity is worshipped is as the lingum, 
which the classical reader will understand when I say 
that it resembles the phalli of the Greeks. It is ex- 
posed to public view the country over. Siva has a vast 



272 INDIA. 

number of worshippers, some of whom deem him supe- 
rior to Brahma himself. One of his consorts is the 
sanguinary Kalee, another is the more pacific Doorga, 
of both of whom we shall speak before concluding the 
chapter. The disciples of this deity are entitled Sivites. 

This triad has given birth to a great number of ad- 
ditional deities, some of whom are held in scarcely 
less reverence than the original. Of these three hun- 
dred and thirty millions of divinities, I will notice 
but a few of the more prominent. 

Ganesa is the elder son of Siva and Parvuti. With 
his elephant face, big belly, and four hands, he pre- 
sents a strange and repulsive appearance. But for all 
this, no deity is more often named than he. Being 
esteemed the work-perfecter, or, one who can place 
and remove obstacles, he is aKvays invoked at the 
commencement of any undertaking or enterprise. Be- 
fore a journey, writing a letter, studying a book, 
and the like, Ganesa is upon the .lips of the traveller 
or student. This eminent position was given to him 
as a compensation for the strange head he wears, which 
was put upon his shoulders when he lost his own, in 
infancy, by a look of the celestial Shunee. 

Subram7inman, the Hindoo Mars, &c., special 
guardian of the Brahminical order, is represented 
with six faces, twelve arms, riding on a peacock, 
and holding in his hands severally a bow, an arrow, a 
conch, a circle, a sword, a rope, a trident, a diamond- 
weapon, fire, a dart, a crescent-shaped weapon, and a 
drum. He is specially worshipped at Secandar Mali, 



RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 273 

near Madura, Trichendoor, Pyney, Tirueragarara, and 
all the hill country. 

Doorga^ who combines the characteristics of Miner- 
va, Pallas, and Juno, is one of the wives of Siva. Her 
original name was Parvuti, but, having, by a display 
of extraordinary valor, defeated a giant named Doorga, 
she was thenceforth dignified with the name of her 
conquered foe. This monster is supposed by some to 
be a personification of Fzce, and Doorga, of Virtue; 
while the struggle typified the action and reaction of 
good and evil in the world. The festival in honor of 
this goddess, celebrated in the month of September, 
has no superior for magnificence of entertainment and 
imposing appearance in the country. At the celebra- 
tion of one festival, a wealthy Hindoo has been 
known to give 80,000 lbs. of sweetmeats, 80,000 lbs. 
of sugar, 1,000 suits of cloth garments, 1,000 suits of 
silk, 1,000 offerings of rice, plantains and other 
fruits. In the single city of Calcutta, it is sup- 
posed that half a million •pounds sterling are annual- 
ly expended on the Doorga festival alone, 

Kalee, another of Siva's wives, is the Moloch of the 
land. Her appearance indicates her character. She 
is represented as standing with one foot upon the 
chest of her husband, Siva, whom she has thrown 
down in a fit of anger ; her tongue, dyed with blood, 
is protruding from her mouth ; she is adorned with 
skulls, and the hands of her slain enemies are sus- 
pended from her girdle. The blood of a tiger delights 
her for ten years ; — of a human being for one thou- 
12* 



274 INDIA. 

sand years. If any of her worshippers draw the blood 
from his own person, and offer it her, she will be in 
raptures of joy ; but if he cut out a piece of flesh for 
a burnt" offering, her delight is beyond bounds. But, 
though thus sanguinary and malevolent, Kal6e is one 
of the favorite deities among the Hindoos. The 
Swinging Festival and other observances, to be al- 
luded to in detail hereafter, are in her honor — ^being 
designed to avert her wrath, or secure her blessing. 
She is the especial friend of thieves and murderers, 
who invoke her blessing before entering upon their 
deeds of violence and death. 

Latchmi, the goddess of fortune, is the wife of Vish- 
nu, before alluded to. Painted yellow, she sits upon 
an expanded water-lily, holding in two hands the 
lotus, while the others are employed in protecting and 
blessing. She is worshipped in a manner the opposite 
of the fiendish Kalee. 

Sarasvati^ patroness of learning and music, is wife 
of Brahma. Dressed in white raiment, with a gar- 
land of diamonds, she holds in her four hands a part 
of the Vedas, a string of crystals, a musical instru- 
ment ; while, with the fourth, she seems to be illus- 
trating some problem. She is the peaceable Minerva 
of Grreece and Rome, inventress of the fine and use- 
ful arts. Festivals in her honor are largely attended 
by those especially who need her peculiar blessings. 

Munmuthan is the Indian cupid ; the " beautiful 
son of Brahma, who bears the five flowery arrows which 
inflame with love the inhabitants of the three worlds." 



RELIGION OP THE HINDOOS. 275 

He is represented, allegorioally, as conveyed by females 
SO united as to form the body of an elephant — thus ex- 
pressing the illusion which he causes — and as having 
his quiver at his back, and in his hand his bow of sugar- 
cane, with a string composed of honey bees, and arrows 
of flowers. 

To these may be added Indru, king of heaven, with 
his thousand eyes, a thunderbolt in his right hand, and 
bow in his left ; Sooryu, with his red face and three 
eyes, and four arms, whose followers never eat till they 
have seen the sun, and fast if he be obscured by clouds ; 
Pavuna, god of the winds and messenger of the celes- 
tials , Vuroona, god of the waters ; Yumu, judge of 
the dead, who sends to hell or heaven as the case de- 
mands ; and scores of others with whose names, duties, 
and characters I will not weary my reader. While I 
have attempted to be brief, it was demanded by my 
subject that I make a somewhat complete mention of 
leading persons in the pantheon. 

Two features in the character of this entire class of 
celestials arrest attention ; their limited physical and 
mental faculties, together with the entire absence of 
all moral qualities. In illustration of the first point, look 
at Brahma. He is said at one time to have performed 
a long course of ascetic devotions to secure a desired 
object, and after a\l failed of success ; whereupon he 
he sat down and wept from very chagrin and sorrow. 
As to morality, there is not the first element of truth, 
modesty, or goodness in one of them. See Brahma in 
in a fit of intoxication attempting the virtue of his own 



276 INDIA. 

daughter, and Vishnu telling a palpable falsehood to 
secure his favorite object, and Siva worshipped under 
an emblem too immodest to be named, and Krishna 
sporting vs^ith milkmaids in a state of shameless nudity. 
I pause at this point, and ask my reader to form his 
own judgment as to what must be the religious insti- 
tutions acceptable to such beings, and what the state 
of morals in a land of such divine personages. The 
characteristic features of the Grospel system are holiness 
and mercy, because these are the leading attributes in 
the Being adored. "Be ye holy, for / am holy.'''' 
" Love one another, for God is love.''"' " Be ye mer- 
ciful, even as your Father in heaven is mercifulP 
View the gods of India, false to their word, thievish 
licentious, ambitious, murderous, all indeed that is 
repellant, malignant, and vile, (their own writers being 
judges,) is it surprising that there is perjury, and in- 
justice, and wickedness the land over ? Ah no ! The 
people are bad, many of them very bad ; but they do 
not and cannot equal their own gods in wickedness. 
Their deities must be changed ere their moral condition 
can be materially and generally improved. The Bible 
must supplant the narratives of their false divinities; 
their temples, covered now with sculptures and paint- 
ings which crimson the face of modesty even to glance 
at, must be demolished ; the vile lingam must be lev- 
elled to the ground ; the festivals, in which are re-en- 
acted shameless events in the lives of Krishna, and 
others like him, must be abolished ; the scenes now 
passing before the eyes of that nation, sanctioned by 



RELIGION OP THE HINDOOS 2^7 

divine example, must cease. Then will India rise from 
her deep moral depression. 

Reader, is not this a desirable result ? While pe- 
rusing these pages, has not the thought occurred, " Oh, 
that they knew what I do of the true Grod ?" It is a 
generous emotion, becoming yoti as a philanthropist 
and Christian. Stifle it not, but resolve that if the 
Hindoos remain longer in the bonds of ignorance, the 
fault shall not be yours » 



CHAPTER XX. 

HINDOOISM IN PRACTICE. 

Facts indicating the Religious tendency of the Hindoos — Car Drawing — 
Sailing — Hook Swinging — Passing through the Fire — Other and like 
Observances — Quotation from Bishop Heber respecting the Moral 
Character of the Hindoos. 

Having treated of Hindooism in theory, and as 
taught in the sacred Shastras, the reader's attention is 
now requested to this religious system as acted out by 
its disciples. The native of India does not consider 
it enough simply to express his assent to certain dog- 
mas, and with that be satisfied ; but to a verbal con- 
fession of Brahma and his faith, is added a consecration, 
personal, self-sacrificing, and fearless, to his will and 
claims. A thoughtful traveller in that country will be 
ever ready to exclaim, with one of old, " / see that ye 
are very religiousP When the Hindoo appears in 
public, he carries upon his forehead and arms the sym- 
bols of his faith ; when he passes a temple or a religious 
teacher, expressions of reverence are seldom forgotten; 
the ceremonial* of the morning is scrupulously prac- 
ticed ; and he omits no part of the long and ever-recur- 




IMtcJifJln. 7zA 



SHEDDEL Of? 
HOOK SWINGING 



n/rassajjSl 



HINDOOISM IN PRACfiCE. 2^9 

ring routine of observances. This is a religion of ac- 
tion^ and not a class of sentiments lying concealed and 
dormant in the soul. Every town and village has its 
sacred edifice, within which is an image of the patron 
deity whose worship claims the attention of one or 
more of the priesthood. It is proverbial among the 
Hindoos that a " man should not live ivhere there is 
no temple.''^ The erection of these consecrated build- 
ings, and their endowment with a suitable revenue, is 
one of the most honorable and meritorious ways in 
which the rich can expend their wealth. Where pri- 
vate munificence fails, the object is attained at public 
expense. The temples at Benares, Juggernaut, Ma- 
dura, Gruserat, Ramperam, Seringham, &c., are pre- 
sided over by thousands of priests, with other attend- 
ants in like proportion. In addition to these massive 
and extensive religious establishments, edifices smaller, 
but durable, are seen in places remote from all human 
habitations — on the banks of rivers — in the middle of 
streams — on the summit of lofty mountains — and be- 
neath the wide-spread banyan. Connected with these 
are annual and more frequent festivals, which collect 
their thousands and tens of thousands from places near 
and far remote. Three classes of persons are in at- 
tendance upon every temple of any note, and whose 
presence is essential to a complete performance of all 
its ceremonial — the Brahmins or priests, who alone 
have the knowledge and authority to conduct the mi- 
nute and tedious ritual — the dancing wometi, who in 
public chant the praises of the deity, but are in private 



280 INDIA, 

the courtezans of the Brahmins — and the musicians^ 
with tomtom, horn, and cymbal. The traveller cannot 
remain long in a place without learning something of 
the religion of the people. If he be near a temple, the 
Bound of the bell tells him that the Brahmin is within 
the sanctuary, engaged in sacred duties demanded by 
his deity — his sleep is disturbed by harshly sonorous 
instruments, indicating the progress of some ceremony 
of religious worship — and as he leaves the village, he 
meets a company bearing offerings of plantains, rice, 
and flowers, as expressions of gratitude to the presiding 
divinity of the neighborhood. When the appointed 
day is at hand, preparations are made for the annual 
car drawings while thousands are seen flocking to the 
festive spot. During the year the car has stood near 
the temple, and sheltered from the weather by a 
thatched roof. This is removed — necessary repairs are 
made — four long and heavy cables are brought out and 
attached to the cumbrous vehicle — garlands of flowers 
and tinselled ornaments are so suspended from the 
frame-work as to attract much notice and admiration. 
As evening approaches, the image is brought from its 
sacred enclosure and placed upon the vehicle, where 
also stand several priests paying it due attention and 
reverence, while the streets are thronged with persons 
of both sexes and all ages anxiously waiting the ap- 
pointed hour. The time having arrived, the cables 
are seized by thousands of zealous hands, while to the 
sound of music, accompanied by shouts of enthusiastic 
zeal, the massive and gaudy structure is drawn through 



HINDOOISM IN PRACTICE, 281 

the principal streets and returned to its place of abode, 
there to remain during another twelvemonth. YVheu 
the excursion is on the water, a raft is made, upon which 
is erected a canopy light and gorgeous. With great 
pomp the image is removed from his temple abode, 
borne on a decorated palanquin to the water-side, while 
the huge rope is carried ashore, which is seized by the 
vast concourse of worshippers, who draw the craft once 
and again around the tank to the sound of music, and 
with joyful acclamations. These both occur at night, 
and their attractiveness is much increased by the 
lamps and flambeaux, which may be numbered by thou- 
sands. The number of Hindoo festivals, including the 
monthly observances of the sun's passing from one side of 
the zodiac to another, is one hundred and forty-five. Of 
these ten are monthly, and twenty-five are anniver- 
saries. Were these observances to go no farther than 
giving the image a drive or sail for a midnight airing, 
or in assembling at the temple and celebrating with 
music and recitation their favored deity, or making 
costly presents to the Brahmins, or forming clay images 
of G-unputtee, or spending the night in festivity and 
games of chance in honor of Lukshumee, or illumi- 
nating temple and street in honor of Siva ; — it can be 
alone said that they are puerile, childish, and that they 
consume a large amount of time which might be far 
more profitably spent otherwise. But it is not so. The 
most popular religious observances are positively harm- 
ful, being destructive to morals, or domestic peace and 
personal comfort. The character of the goddess Kal6e 



282 INDIA. 

has been alluded to in the preceding chapter, and it 
was suggested, as a natural inference, that the wor- 
ship required by such a being must be sanguinary and 
woful. Such we find to be the case. Soon after 
reaching Madras I had an opportunity of witnessing, 
for the first time, the much-famed Sheddel, or hook- 
swinging festival. T was residing upon the sea shore 
near the spot where the cruel festivity was to occur. 
At mid-day the multitude began to assemble, and before 
five o'clock the crowd could not have been less than 
five thousand persons of both sexes, and all ages and 
conditions of life. A beam about forty feet in height 
had been erected, across the top of which was placed a 
transverse pole of smaller size, to each end of which 
was tied a rope, the end of one of which trailed upon 
the ground ; while to the shorter one was attached two 
iron hooks, strong, pounded smooth, and sharp-pointed. 
The devotees who were to exhibit their devotion to 
their faith, were retained in an adjoining temple until 
the fitting hour arrived. One of them was then led 
out, preceded by Brahmins and musicians and friends. 
Ho approached the upright pole — lay upon his face 
while the hooks were thrust under the flesh on either 
side of the vertebrae, just below the shoulder blade, 
and then, the other ropes being well manned, he was 
hoisted up in mid-air, and swung round and round to 
the number of ten to thirty times, according as strength 
allowed or the vow made necessary. Twenty or more 
went through this ceremony that afternoon, many of 
whom, by way of manifesting their indifference of pain, 



HINDOOISM IN PRACTICE. SS'i 

scattered flowers and fruit, beat a tomtom, and smoked 
a cigar. Being sceptical as to the statement that the 
hook went into the flesh, and was supported by it alone, 
unaided by any exterior bandage, I went near enough 
to convince myself that such was the fact, and that 
no deception was practiced. The muscles are strong, 
and accidents from falling seldom occur. 

On another occasion I walked out at evening, with 
my esteemed friend and colleague, Rev. Mr. Hutch- 
ings, to witness the ceremonial of passing through 
the fire. A plat of ground, several hundred yards in 
circumference, had been marked out, the soil removed, 
to the depth of several inches, and the surface covered 
with a kind of fuel, which, when ignited, emits an in- 
tense heat. Thousands were on the spot when we ar- 
rived, and, though the crowd gave way for us, the 
heat alone compelled us to keep at a considerable dis- 
tance, and to cover our faces with our hands for the 
sake of protection and comfort. When the flame had 
subsided, and naught was left but burning coals, from 
ten to twenty persons, men and females, with no 
covering to their feet, and but a slight dress about 
their loins, walked deliberately from one side of this 
burning surface to another. One of the women car- 
ried her child with her, as she passed over, much to 
the admiration and astonishment of the gaping multi- 
tude, but more to our pity for the deluded votaries of 
such a system of faith and worship. 

When the annual festival of drawing the car occurs 
at Madura, the multitude crowding the city during 



284 INDIA, 

the week of its continuance, cannot usually be less 
than forty thousand strangers. Then may be seen 
devotees swinging between trees, with ropes attached 
to the shoulder and feet, above a fire enkindled on 
the ground below, — lying upon the earth with coals 
at the head, feet, and on either side — walking the 
streets with iron spikes thrust through the tongue and 
cheek — wearing a gridiron-shaped encumbrance upon 
the shoulder, the head being thrust through the 
grating — and like acts of superstitious and sanguinary 
devotion, especially to the goddess Kalee. 

Groing to the Groomsoor country, lying in the north- 
ern part of the Madras Presidency, we find the peo- 
ple accustomed from time immemorial to flay alive 
innocent children, to avert the anger or secure the 
favor of the earth-goddess — she who rules the order 
of the seasons, sends the periodical rain, gives fecun- 
dity to the soil, and health or sickness to the people. 
I will not, need not, go farther into this fearful and 
deplorable detail. 

" But how cruel the people must be — how inhu- 
man ! " says my reader. Not so, by nature. The 
Hindoos are characterized by mildness rather than 
ferocity. Their religion has made them what they 
are — a religion false in its teachings — dishonorable to 
that Holy and Merciful One whose will it professes to 
proclaim — destructive of personal happiness and do- 
mestic peace — and with no hope to its deluded votaries. 

As to the effects of Hindooism upon the national 
character, the visible results of which it has been the 



HINDOOISM IN PRACTICE. 285 

producing cause, I could enlarge at much length, 
especially in the recording of facts which came under 
my personal observation while in that country. But 
my limits forbid this lengthened detail, and, besides, 
the topic is one with which the reader is familiar. I 
will therefore express my thoughts through the fol- 
lowing paragraphs from the pen of the lamented He- 
ber. I quote from his pages more readily on two ac- 
counts — his high position for learning and accurate 
observation, and his exceeding amiability, which lead 
him to view the Hindoos with a degree of charity and 
kindliness which stopped this side of, rather than ex- 
ceeded the truth. These are the Bishop's words : But 
of all idolatries which I have ever read or heard 
of, the religion of the Hindoos, in which I had taken 
some pains to inform myself, really appears to me 
the worst, both in the degrading notions which 
it gives of the Deity ; in the endless round of its bur- 
densome ceremonies, which occupy the time and dis- 
tract the thoughts, without either instructing or inter- 
esting its votaries ; in the filthy acts of uncleanness 
and cruelty, not only permitted but enjoined, and in- 
separably interwoven with those ceremonies ; in the 
system of castes — a system which tends, more than 
anything else the Devil has yet invented, to destroy 
the feelings of general benevolence, and to make nine- 
tenths of mankind the hopeless slaves of the remain- 
der ; and, in the total absence of any popular system 
of morals, or any single lesson which the people at 
large ever hear, to live virtuously and do good to each 



286 INDIA. 

other. I do not say, indeed, that there are not some 
scattered lessons of this kind to be found in their an- 
cient books ; but those books are neither accessible to 
the people at large, nor are these last permitted to 
read them ; and, in general, all the sins that a Soodra 
is taught to fear, are, killing a cow, offending a Brah- 
min, or neglecting one of the many frivolous rites by 
which their deities are supposed to be conciliated. 
Accordingly, though the general sobriety of the Hin- 
doos (a virtue which they possess in common with 
most inhabitants of warm climates) affords a very 
great facility to the maintenance of public order and 
decorum, I really never have met with a race of men 
whose standard of morality is so low, who feel so little 
apparent shame on being detected in a falsehood, or so 
little interest in the sufferings of a neighbor, not 
being of their own caste or family ; whose ordinary 
and familiar conversation is so licentious, or, in the 
wilder and more lawless districts, who shed blood 
with so little repugnance. The good qualities which 
there are among them, are, in no instance that I am 
aware of, connected with, or arising out of, their re- 
ligion ; since it is in no instance to good deeds or vir- 
tuous habits in life that the future rewards in which 
they believe are promised. Their bravery, their fidel- 
ity to their employers, their temperance, and, wherever 
they are found, their humanity and gentleness of dis- 
position, appear to arise exclusively from a natural, 
happy temperament, from an honorable pride in their 



HINDOOrSM IN PRACTICE. 287 

own renown and the renown of their ancestors, and 
from the goodness of (3-od, who seems unwilling that 
His image should be entirely effaced, even in the 
midst of the grossest error. 



CHAPTEE XXI. 

MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRrSTIANITY IN INDIA. 

Harmony between these means — First Agency, Preaching; to Stated 
Congregations, in the Highways, at the Mission-House and at Tayats, 
with Trials of Body, iMind and Heart — Second Agency, Bible and 
Tract Distribution — [ts Necessit}'' and Success — Third Agency, Edu- 
cation, (1) Day Charity Schools, (2) Boarding Schools, (3) Literary 
Seminaries, (4) Theological Academies, and (5) English Schools — 
Concluding Remarks. 

That system of Christian benevolence which passes 
under the name of the '* Foreign Missionary Enter- 
prise,'''' has for its leading object the conversion of the 
unevangelized nations to the faith and worship of Jesus 
Christ. In the prosecution of this merciful scheme, a 
variety of means has been devised, each of which, 
though distinct in its mode of operation, unites with 
all the rest in promoting the desired result. In this 
respect, the system find its counterpart in the human 
frame — ^the head, the trunk, the limbs, have each their 
particular function in the physical economy, but all 
aim at one and the same object, and the " eye cannot 
say unto the hand, I have no need of thee, nor again 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 289 

the head to the feet, I have no need of you." In like 
manner, though a variety of means have been put in 
operation for bringing the Gospel to bear upon the 
minds and hearts of the heathen, they should be re- 
garded not as antagonists and rivals, but as friends 
and allies, enrolled in a common cause, and leagued 
against a common foe. With these remarks, I ask the 
reader's attention to the three-fold agency now em- 
ployed for bringing Scripture truth before the Hindoos. 
Preaching, or the announcement, by the living 
voice, of the doctrines and duties of the Gospel, is the 
most efficient instrumentality as yet instituted for 
promoting the conversion of mankind to the religion 
of Christ. Missionaries allow no plans of benefiting 
the heathen to take the precedence of this oral com- 
munication of divine truth. There are, however, 
various ways of preaching, the employment of which 
must be regulated by the capabilities of the mission- 
ary, (especially his acquaintance with the native lan- 
guage,) and the circumstances in which he may be 
placed. The first of these is the delivery of prepared 
discourses to started congregations. There are, con- 
nected with all mission stations in Southern India, 
churches or chapels, where the Gospel is preached, 
usually twice on the Sabbath, and once or oftener 
during the week. The Sabbath-morning audiences 
vary in size from one hundred and fifty to three hun- 
dred persons of both sexes. If these assemblies differ 
from those in Christian lands, in being smaller and 
more heterogeneous, the contrast is still greater in the 
13 



290 INDIA. 

style of address needful to arrest their attention, and 
carry conviction to the heart. Simplicity of arrange- 
ment and expression, parabolical or historical illustra- 
tions, and earnest appeals to the conscience, charac- 
terize the discourses of those who are most successful 
in gaining for the truth an attentive ear. Missionaries 
are in danger of rising superior to their simple-minded 
auditors, in the terms they employ, and in the con- 
struction of their sentences. Their style has often 
too much of the staidness and artificiality of Johnson, 
and too little of the simplicity of Addison and Swift. 
To obviate this serious evil, recourse is had to the 
practice of ascertaining' by a question, (usually ad- 
dressed to one or more of the older lads,) whether the 
argument used, and the illustration employed, convey 
the intended idea, and are appreciated and felt. I 
have heard it objected to that this catechetical mode 
detracts from the dignity of the pulpit ; but I cannot 
but think that this objection indicates a mind more 
awake to an observance of the graces and elegancies 
of the pulpit, than a heart alive with zeal to do good. 
Another department of preaching is that of address- 
ing mixed audiences in the highways, the markets, 
and other places of public resort. Of all kinds of mis- 
sionary labor, this makes the largest draughts upon 
the body, mind, and heart. The exertion of using 
the voice in the open air, and in a strange and foreign 
language, makes unusual calls upon the missionary's 
strength, while we cannot overlook his almost certain 
exposure to personal violence. The presence of a 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 291 

Christian government renders this last-named a less 
formidable evil in India than in many other lands, 
especially those under Mahomedan rule, and yet, in- 
stances still occur, where the bitter enmity of the hea- 
then to the truths of the Grospel displays itself in acts 
of outrage and violence upon whoever dares to become 
their public advocate. 

The trials of spirit are scarcely less numerous than 
those of a physical nature. Two qualifications are in- 
dispensable in one who would proclaim the gospel suc- 
cessfully in the places of public concourse — quickness 
of thought and command of temper. 

The objections urged against Christianity are of such 
a character, that a missionary would be not a little 
ashamed if conscious of an inability to return satisfac- 
tory replies ; and yet these may be presented in a form 
so novel, and urged with a manner so confident and 
earnest, that he is often quite at a loss what to say ; 
and the reader can well imagine the use that his op- 
ponent (if a shrewd and wily Brahmin) will make of 
his momentary hesitancy in turning against him the 
sneer and laugh of ridicule. " Do you believe the 
words of your Saviour ?" inquired a Brahmin, as a 
missionary was addressing an assembled audience. 
Upon hearing an affirmative reply, he continued, " Je- 
sus said, ' if any man take away thy coat, let him have 
thy cloak also ;' you are well dressed and I half naked, 
pray give me your garments. He also said, ' Whoso- 
ever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him 
the other also ;' suppose I give you a blow on the face, 



292 INDIA. 

will you act in obedience to this command ?" Before 
the missionary had time to answer, there was general 
laughter and interruption. When a reply can be given 
something in the style of the question asked, the effect 
is often very good. As one of the first missionaries in 
Bengal was preaching in a street of Calcutta, a baboo 
passing by cast a contemptuous glance at him and 
said, " You, padres, are just like the hypocrites of 
whom your Jesus said, ' They love to pray standing in 
the synagogues and in the corners of the streets, that 
they may be seen of men,' " " Yes my friend," replied 
the missionary, " but with this difference, they did it 
that they might be praised, and we are scoffed at and 
despised for it." 

A missionary in Bengal being asked by a philoso- 
phical Brahmin, " What do you preach here ?" replied, 
" We teach the knowledge of the true G-od," " Who 
is he ? I am Grod," said the Hindoo. '• I thought," 
said the missionary afterwards, " that it would be an 
easy matter to confute him, but I soon discovered my 
mistake." " This is very extraordinary," said I, " are 
you then almighty ?" " No/' he replied, " if I had 
created the sun J should be almighty, but I have not." 
" How can you pretend to be Grod if you are not al- 
mighty ?" " This question shows your ignorance," 
said he ; " What do you see here ?" pointing to the 
Ganges. " Water." " And what is in this vessel ?" 
at the same time pouring out a little into a cup. 
" This is water likewise." " What is the difference 
between this water and that of the G-anges ?" " There 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING' CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 293 

is none." " Oh, I see a great difference : that water 
carries ships, this does not. God is almighty ; I am 
only a part of the god-head, and therefore I am not 
almighty ; and yet I am God just as these drops in the 
cup are real water." " According to your representa- 
tion God is divided into many thousand portions ; one 
is in me, and another is in you." "Oh," said the 
Brahmin, " this remark is owing to your ignorance : 
how many suns do you see in the sky ?" " Only one." 
" But if you fill a thousand vessels with water, what 
do you see in each ?" " The image of the sun." 
" But if you see the image of the sun in so many ves- 
sels, does it prove that there are a thousand suns in 
the firmament ? No ! there is only one sun, but it is 
reflected a thousand times in the water. So likewise 
there is but one God, but his image and brightness are 
reflected in every human being." The missionary, in- 
stead of stopping to point out the falsity of the com- 
parison, preferred trying to touch his conscience. 
" God," he continued, " is holy, are you holy ?" " I 
am not ; I am doing many things that are wrong, and 
that I know to be wrong." " How, then, can you say 
that you are God ?" " Oh, I see," said the former, 
" that you need a little more intellect to be put into 
your head before you can argue with us. God is fire ; 
fire is the purest element in the creation ; but if you throw 
dirt upon it, a bad odor will arise ; it is not the fault 
of the fire, but of that which is cast upon it. Thus 
God in me is perfectly pure, but He is surrounded by 
matter. He does not desire sin ; He hates it ; but it 



294 INDIA. 

arises from matter." In this way the conversation con- 
tinued long, but at the end the missionary found that 
he had made but little progress in convincing his oppo- 
nent. Many a person who can fill a pulpit in America 
or England with respectability and credit, would un- 
doubtedly break down if called to make an attempt 
among the Hindoos ; and this not for want of mental 
strength or furniture, but from the peculiar manner in 
which objections are presented, and the confidence 
with which they are uttered. Readiness in appre- 
hending the point of an opponent's arguments, and tact 
in returning a brief but satisfactory reply, are of far 
more value in such circumstances than depth of mind 
or extent of scientific acquirement. Quickness con- 
quers where research loses the day. 

Large calls are also made upon the better feelings of 
the heart, especially patience and forbearance. The 
missionary hears his motives impugned in a manner 
very painful to one of honorable purpose, and conscious 
of sincere integrity and benevolence. Said a mission- 
ary to a Hindoo : " What do you think is the reason 
why we leave our native country, come to your vil- 
lages, establish schools, and expend so much in the 
education of your children ?" One replied, " You expect 
by this good deed the more certainly to reach heaven," 
while another answered, " Oh, it is your nature, just 
as it is the nature of the jackal to prowl abroad at night 
stealing fowls and geese." How often have I been 
compelled to hear the name of the blessed Redeemer 
blasphemed, and his most gracious acts misconstrued 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 295 

and vilified in a manner tending to av^aken feelings 
akin to those of the too zealous disciple when he said, 
" Shall we not call down fire from heaven and consume 
them !" But his thoughts and feelings, though bitter 
to agony, the missionary must not express, except in 
the language of pity and compassion ; for to get his 
opponent irritated and vexed, is the Hindoo disputant's 
most earnest endeavor. This done, and he leaves the 
field with the triumphant exclamation, " The padre is 
angry — is angry, and the day is won !" 

Conversation with visitors at the mission house o.nd 
at Zayats comes under the general head of preaching, 
A missionary keeps open doors. His dwelling is a place 
of public resort, and he denies admittance to the per- 
son who calls to see him at the peril of withholding 
instruction and advice from one to whom he may be a 
guide to the heavenly world. Zayats, or small build- 
ings in frequented parts of the city or village, where 
the missionary spends a part of each day in conversa- 
tion with visitors, and in tract distribution, are less 
common in India than in Burmah, their place being 
supplied by the rooms in which the day schools are 
held. 

The topic of preaching may be closed by the published 
opinion of the Rev. Mr. Buyers, of the Benares Mission. 
" It has been a sad mistake to suppose that inferior 
preaching talents may do for the missionary work. The 
contrary is the fact. Eloquence of a far higher and 
more varied order is required than that which will do 
in an English pulpit, where the preacher, from having 



296 INDIA. 

to walk in a beaten track, may acquit himself, so far 
as ordinary ministrations are concei'ned, without pro- 
fessing any considerable oratorical powers. The fact 
that a man has to divest Christian doctrines of all 
technical words and phrases, and give it in new forms 
and combinations, is surely sufficient to show that 
preaching to the Heathen requires the exercise of no 
ordinary powers. He has not only to strike out a 
new and untrodden path, but has to arrange the whole 
tenor of his preaching so as to bring Christianity to 
bear on the extermination of systems of error quite new 
to himself, and to modes of speaking in which he has 
been educated. To speak well and efficiently with such 
difficulties in the way, he must be a man of ready 
eloquence, as well as a philosophical linguist, capable 
of moulding and bending figures of speech required for 
conveying to the minds of his hearers new trains of 
thought and doctrines unheard of before ; and all at 
the spur of the moment, and amid acute and watchful 
adversaries, who will be glad to take advantage of 
every weak point, and turn it against him," 

n. 

The preparation and distribution of the sacred 
Scriptures and religious tracts and books is the 
second agency for propagating Christianity in India, 
The occasions are many in which an oral communica- 
tion of divine truth is impossible. Ignorance of the 
native language, the prejudices of the people, and a 
variety of other obstacles, may prevent personal in- 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 297 

struction ; and were there no other agency than that 
of the living voice, many of the people must remain in 
ignorance of Him who is " the way, the truth, and the 
life." But the various organizations formed for pre- 
paring and publishing Bibles and religious tracts come 
in to supply this desideratum ; and such has been their 
practical utility, that they have long been deemed an 
essential part of the great system of foreign missionary 
effort. All the considerations that render them a 
means of usefulness in Christian lands, are greatly 
magnified in importance when carried to a Pagan 
country. Connected with each of the larger mission- 
ary stations is a printing establishment, from which 
the shelves of the missionaries are supplied with these 
silent, but eloquent and effective teachers of revealed 
truth, which can go into towns and villages to which 
the living preacher is denied an entrance, removing 
prejudices and preparing the way for his future instruc- 
tions, or deepening impressions that his previous visits 
have already made. 

Did my limits allow, I might detain the reader with 
a narrative of facts illustrative of the position, that 
while the oral communication of divine truth is wor- 
thy of the first place in the interest and effort of the 
Church, this of Bible and tract distribution cannot 
be neglected without serious harm to the cause of 
truth. To the friends of the American Bible and Tract 
Societies, I say with all earnestness. Sustain with un- 
diminished, and, if possible, enlarged liberality, the 
foreign departments of your blessed institutions. You 
13* 



298 INDIA. 

cannot give beyond the extent of profitable appropria- 
tion, and the character of your directing agents abroad 
is a proof that a judicious and honest use will be made 
of the funds committed to their care. 

III. 

The third and last of the agencies in use for advanc- 
ing the Grospel throughout India, is Education. There 
are five distinct classes of institutions which have for 
their object the inculcating of Bible doctrine and pre- 
cept. Of these the first is that of 

Day Charity Schools. 

There is no lack in India of primary schools for the 
instruction of the young. Cities and towns are full of 
them. You can scarcely pass the length of any street 
without seeing the verandah of one or more houses 
filled with youth from the ages of five to twelve, who 
are being instructed in the elements of Hindoo litera- 
ture and science, especially in reading, arithmetic, and 
ethical proverbs selected from the writings of their 
sages. The teachers are of course all heathen, and the 
instruction they impart tends directly and by design to 
form their pupils to the opinions and practices of idol- 
atry. To rescue one of these institutions from such an 
influence, and, while it remains the same in the place 
of its location, with the same master at its head, the 
same youth in attendance, to remove the heathen text- 
books and place the Bible in their stead, is a most de- 
sirable object to secure. It is purifying the foun- 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 299 

tain, that its varied streams may be healthful and 
invigorating rather than deadly and noisome. Excep- 
tion is taken to the system, by some, on the ground 
that it leads to the employment of heathen masters, 
who will, it is urged, use all possible means to neu- 
tralize the benefit that might be derived from the study 
of the revealed volume. In reply to this objection, 
which is not without weight, it is urged that Christian 
teachers cannot be obtained in sufficient numbers to 
meet the exigencies of the case ; and that if they could 
be found and sent to the villages, the heathen master 
would not yield his post to a stranger ; and the conse- 
quence would be a Christian school set up in opposition 
to the heathen, with the advantage to the latter of 
having the first occupancy of the place, and the preju- 
dices of the parents in favor of that which strengthens 
the power of their own religion. In military tactics it 
is deemed more desirable to seize the enemy's fort and 
turn the guns against its former occupants, than to 
erect a new battery over against the old one. 

But that the reader may see clearly the nature and 
amount of Christian instruction imparted in these in- 
stitutions, I will state, with all brevity, the course of 
instruction pursued in the schools of which I had the 
charge while a resident of Madras and, formerly, of 
the city of Madura. Each school was divided into four 
classes, to each of which were allotted the following 
monthly studies : 

1st class — ^A Scripture text for each day, the whole 
to be recited, seriatim, at the Sabbath morning ser- 



800 INDIA. 

vice, and at the monthly examinations — two pages of 
a catechism of Christian doctrine and duty ; the replies 
being given in the language of the Bible — ten pages 
of an elementary Church History — five stanzas of a 
Tamil dictionary in running rhyme. 

2nd class — A daily text, as in the first class — two 
pages of a catechism of Scripture precepts — a chapter 
in a reading book, narrative and arithmetic. 

3d class — One page of an elementary catechism — 
reading — spelling — and arithmetic. 

4th class — Primary catechism and alphabet. 

On the last day of the month all the scholars are 
assembled, and a careful examination takes place, in 
the presence of the native assistant, upon all the lessons 
pursued. This examination is conducted by the mis- 
sionary, and that, too, with great strictness, as pay- 
ment^ to the master, is graduated by the proficiency 
made by his pupils in each study. 

In addition to these lessons, the following require- 
ments are made. First — Masters and monitors, and, 
at least, two-thirds of the pupils must be at religious 
services on Sabbath morning, and at the Sabbath school 
an hour previous. Second — ^All the pupils of the 1st 
and 2nd classes meet at the house of the missionary 
an hour of each Tuesday morning, to read the Bible 
and receive instruction. Third — Masters and moni- 
tors assemble on Tuesday afternoon at the church, 
where one hour is devoted to the lessons of the month, 
and the second to a lecture. Fourth — The missionary 
visits each school at. least twice a month, where he 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 301 

hears the youth read, and then addresses them and the 
audiences that are naturally attracted to the spot. 
Fifth — The native assistant, bearing the name of su- 
perintendent, visits one of the schools daily, to see 
that masters and scholars are in their places, and to 
preach and distribute Bibles and tracts. 

From this view the reader will perceive that great 
indeed must be the effort required to neutralize all the 
benefits that, with the Divine blessing, must necessa- 
rily attend so great an amount of effort expended in 
their instruction. Immortal truth has gained a lodg- 
ment in the minds of a multitude of intelligent beings, 
and it cannot be dislodged by the most strenuous ef- 
forts of the emissaries of evil. It is by these schools 
more than by any other means, that an extensive 
change is taking place in the popular mind of India. 
Said an eminent missionary in Bengal, " Every youth 
who leaves our schools, does it with the law of Christ 
written upon his conscience, and a belief in the truth 
of Christ, deep-seated in his convictions ; a remark, 
this, which will be responded to by Christian teachers, 
the country over. 

The most serious objection urged against these pri- 
mary schools is, that, though impressions favorable to 
Christianity may be, and often are, made upon the 
minds of the youth while they are in the school-room, 
there is a danger of their obliteration when he returns 
to his home, and mingles with his heathen relatives 
and friends. He there witnesses idolatrous ceremonies 
of the most imposing kind, and in them he is urged 



302 INDIA. 

to take a part ; and refuses at the peril of parental 
displeasure and punishment. The removal of this 
difficulty gave rise to 

Boarding' Schools, 

The second class of educational institutions to which 
I would invite the reader's attention. Here the 
youth is removed quite away from his idolatrous 
connexions, with all their anti-Christian rites and 
ceremonies, language, and influence, and is brought 
under the direct and ever-urgent pressure of Grospel 
truth. From week to week, and month to month, 
he breathes a Christian atmosphere, with nothing 
to neutralize its healthful qualities, or diminish its 
power to invigorate and strengthen the better feel- 
ings of the heart. The youth are under the con- 
stant care and watchful eye of the missionary, and 
are forbidden to visit their heathen friends, except 
at distant intervals, and then but for a short period. 
One such institution is, when possible, established in 
connection with every missionary station ; and they 
have proved themselves the nurseries of the Church. 

The expense of sustaining them is of course 
greater than that of Day Schools. The latter can 
never be superseded by the former, for, even if there 
were a sufficiency of funds, very many parents would 
not allow the attendance of their children at a Board- 
ing School, who would permit them to become mem- 
bers of a Day School. 

In a mission where there are several Boarding 



MKANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 303 

Schools for boys, there is one that takes the prece- 
dence of all the rest, and is termed 

The Seminary. 

A selection is made from among the most hopeful of 
the youth in the boarding schools, and these are placed 
under the instruction of a missionary who is qualified 
to carry them into the higher branches of learning. 
One of the oldest of these institutions is at Batticotta, 
Ceylon. It has been in operation for thirty years, 
during most of the time under Messrs. Poor and Hoi- 
sington ; and, so far as literary and scientific advan- 
tages are concerned, is second to no other in India. 
The one in Madura under Mr. Tracy is of more recent 
establishment, but is in a prosperous state. They are 
in many respects like our colleges, though on a less 
extensive scale, especially as to the number of teachers. 
They need no fuller mention, as all the advantages 
that belong to boarding schools pei'tain to these in an 
eminent degree. 

Theological Academies. 

The remark has been made by an eminent mission- 
ary, and may be received with little or no allowance, 
that " the grand desideratum in the present system of 
India missions, is the want of a really superior and 
thoroughly efficient native agency — a race of native 
laborers endowed with the graces of God's Spirit, in 
happy and harmonious conjunction with the highest 
qualifications which the united wisdom, learning, and 
piety of the Christian Church can bestow." 



304 INDIA. 

Institutions of a kind calculated to prepare a class 
of men thus qualified, are being established in various 
parts of Southern India. One of this character has 
existed for several years at Bangalore, and is under the 
able superintendence and instruction of my valued 
friend, the Rev. Mr. Crisp of the London Missionary 
Society. There is no institution specially devoted to 
the object of preparing young men for the ministry in 
connection with either branch of the American Mis- 
sion in Southern India, their place being in part sup- 
plied by lectures and theological reading in the Semi- 
nary. 

There is throughout India an extensive and increas- 
ing desire to acquire the English language. To meet 
this prevalent wish, another class of institutions has of 
late years come into very general establishment, popu- 
larly styled, 

English Schools. 

Missionaries finding the desire so urgent to acquire 
the language of the West, and seeing that many would 
decline attending upon their instructions at any other 
time or place, have availed themselves of it, and have 
established these schools, in which no less of Chris- 
tianity is taught than in boarding schools ; while that 
instruction is afforded which will prepare the pupils for of- 
fices under government. While in the city of Madura, 
I had under my charge, in addition to a circle of day 
schools and a boarding school for girls, an English 



MEANS FOR ADVANCING CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 305 

school. It contained more than one hundred youth, 
one half of whom were Brahmins. 

I have thus brought to the reader's notice three dis- 
tinct methods of extending the Gospel in India — 
preaching from the pulpit, in the highways, and at the 
mission-house and Zayat — distribution of Bibles and 
tracts, personally and through the medium of native 
assistants — and education in day and boarding schools, 
seminaries, theological institutions, and English 
schools. Here is an array of means calculated to effect 
wonders for the spiritual regeneration of that erring 
land. And so they will, if there be power in truth and 
reality in the Divine promises. The enemy may be 
subtle and malignant, the fortress strong and high- 
walled, but the beleaguering army have justice and 
heaven on their side, and they will prevail ! It needs 
but that the friends of Christian truth allow no retro- 
grade movement in either of these five-fold respects, 
but that each besieger be kept supplied with the ne- 
cessary means of attack at every weak and assailable 
point ; and though there may be much delay, long 
trial of patience and faith, with occasions when further 
effort seems fruitless and vain, yet not more certainly 
did the proud wall of Jericho fall before the armies of 
Israel, than the ramparts of Hindooisra shall be levelled 
to the ground, and Christ shall rule throughout that 
idolatrous and now wretched land. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

LIGHTS AND SHADES OF MISSIONS IN INDIA. 

Quotations from the Abbe Du Bois, with Remarks in Opposition — Con- 
siderations favorable to the Cause of Christian Truth in India — (1) 
Change in Governmental Policy; (2) Disconnection of Government 
fioni Hindoo Festivals and Superstitious Ceremonies ; (3) Improved 
Character of Foreign Residents; (4) Posture of the Native Mind to- 
wards the Religion of Christ ; (5) The existence in India of a Chris- 
tian Church with many thousand Members ; (6) The array of Organ- 
ized Means for Propagating the Truth ; and (7) TPie Practical Inter- 
est of all Christendom in the Prospects of the Hindoos — Certain Offsets 
to these Encouragements — Summing up of the whole subject. 

Early in the present century the Abbe Du Bois, an 
eminent missionary of the Papal Church, returned from 
India to Europe, and communicated to his countrymen 
the following mature opinion : " The experience I have 
gained through a familiar intercourse with the Hindoos 
of all castes for twenty-five years, has made me thor- 
oughly acquainted with the insuperable obstacles that 
Christianity will ever have to encounter there ; and it 
is my decided opinion that the people of that land are 
lying under an everlasting anathema, have forever 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OF MISSIONS IN INDIA. 307 

rendered themselves unworthy of the Divine favor, 
have been utterly forsaken by Grod, and given over for- 
ever to a reprobate mind on account of the peculiar 
wickedness of their worship, so that there is no possi- 
bility of converting them to any sect of Christianity." 
The reader may be assured that I am no convert to the 
Abbe's disheartening conclusion. I was in India less 
than one half of the time that missionary was, but 
while there I travelled much — acquainted myself by 
personal observation with the means mentioned in the 
previous chapter for promoting the advancement of 
Christian truth — observed the results as thus far at- 
tained — conversed with English officers, civil and 
military, who had long resided in the country, and 
visited its most distant provinces — heard the opinions 
of the learned Brahmins and other intelligent natives 
— and would record it as an opinion, deliberately formed, 
that there are considerations which, if contemplated 
with due and impartial attention, must convince the 
most hesitating observer that if there be much in the 
present state of Christianity in India to cause depres- 
sion and sorrow, there is far more to awaken devout 
gratitude and joyful hope. 

The first of several considerations which I would 
submit to the reader's attention, respects the cho,nge 
which has taken place in the views and action of the 
British Government. Says an English writer : " Never, 
in its introduction to a country, has the missionary 
enterprize met with greater difficulties than in India. 
As though it were not enough that we had fifteen thou- 



308 - INDIA. 

sand miles of ocean to traverse, and then contend ^A'■ith 
an insalubrious climate and a strange language ; or 
that the heathen in their attachment to caste and 
other superstitions, or that our own countrymen in 
their infidelity and prejudice against the Grospel, or 
that the powers of darkness and spiritual wickedness 
in high places were against us ; the government^ in 
its policy and in its laws, were in direct hostility to 
our entrance into the field. It was impossible to go in 
a ship from Britain, bound to any of our Indian Pre- 
sidencies. Dr. Bogue, Mr. Ewing, and other noble- 
minded and benevolent men, were interdicted from 
leaving our native country at all. Those who were 
not put under the ban, and whose zeal and intrepidity 
led them to brave every obstacle, had to find their way 
to Holland or to America, that from thence they might 
embark, and, peradventure, be smuggled like contra- 
band goods upon the shores of Hindoostan. The Bap- 
tist missionaries Carey and Thomas, on their arrival at 
Calcutta, were not suffered to remain on British 
ground, and were obliged to take refuge in Serampore, 
a Danish settlement. Messrs. Judson, New-ell, and Hall, 
from America, whose names are embalmed in the 
memory of the churches, were driven from Christian 
protection, and were exposed to a long night of trial, 
privation, and suffering." But a policy so baseless in 
its assumed necessity — so selfish, inconsistent, and 
wicked — could not stand the scrutinizing gaze and 
eloquent denunciation of the worthy in England. When 
the charter of the East India Company was to be re- 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OP MISSIONS IN INDIA. 309 

newed in the year 1813, "William "Wilberforce, the 
friend of man and justice, appeared as the advocate of 
liberty and truth ; and by the power of unanswerable 
arguments, established facts, and manly eloquence, 
caused the introduction of that clause in virtue of 
which missionaries were permitted to enter the country 
at any point — to range throughout the length and 
breadth of the empire, propagating the Gospel in what- 
ever ways were not inconsistent with the peace of the 
country and the majesty of (3-overnment. This change 
of policy has been progressing to the present time ; so 
that if these questions were addressed to the Councils 
of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay — " Have the efforts 
of foreign missionaries contributed to the stability of 
the English Government and to the happiness of the 
people ? and ought their longer continuance to be 
sanctioned and encouraged ? " — who can doubt that 
the reply would be an earnest and emphatic affirm- 
ative. Not only are Christian teachers of all na- 
tions and creeds allowed full liberty to travel, 
speak, and act as they please, but each of the 
branches of government has afforded assistance, by 
pecuniary donations, and otherwise, to institutions in 
which Christianity is faithfully taught, and Hin- 
dooism boldly assailed, — while the highest func- 
tionaries preside at examinations of missionary semi- 
naries, and aid in furthering efforts to evangelize 
the people. This is an encouraging feature of the 
subject, and we should be sadly wanting in becoming 
feelings, if we withheld the voice of grateful praise 



310 INDIA. 

to Him who has the hearts of rulers in His hand, con- 
straining them, as in this case, to extend to His cause 
their protecting and fostering care. 

The past and present position of the British Grovern- 
ment respecting the public parades of Hindoo loor- 
ship, the pilgrim tax, and the property of temples 
and pagodas, is a second feature to be illustrated- 
Until lately, the Hindoos have not only been protected 
in the performance of their religious ceremonies, but 
open and most important encouragement has been af- 
forded by their Christian rulers. The principal tem- 
ples at the various great places of resort were taken 
under the paternal care of G-overnment, and European 
officials had the entire direction of pecuniary receipts 
and disbursements. At the place of concourse fences 
were erected to prevent intruders, and those without 
a pass, from descending to the sacred stream, or from 
entering into the holy edifice, none could obtain ad- 
mission without a government ticket paid for accord- 
ing to the rank of the applicant, and all means were 
used to render the festival profitable as possible to the 
public treasury. This was the case at Juggernaut, 
Gaya, and Allahabad in the north, and Trinomale, 
Conjeveram and Seringham on the south. On certain 
occasions the English regiment was called out, who, 
by their splendid equipage, music, and salutes, gave 
eclat to the idolatrous festivity. At other times, an 
officer of government, with much parade, presented to 
the officiating Brahmins a costly shaivl with which to 
decorate the image. Surprise has been well expressed 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OF MISSIONS IN INDIA. 311 

that the Indian government could induce a large body 
of educated English gentlemen so far to forget them- 
selves as to perform the contemptible part of puppets 
in the procession of such images as Vishnu and other 
Hindoo deities. But so it was, and not till within a 
few years were the folly and wickedness of such a 
course made to be generally seen and felt. The agita- 
tion of the subject began with a few Christian officers 
who were led to consider the relation they sustained to 
their heathen neighbors, and the meaning of the in- 
junction " avoid even the appearance of evil." A con- 
sideration of the responsibility hereby involved, com- 
pelled them to the conclusion that they could not, 
as conscientious men, lend the sanction of their pres- 
ence to the exalting of a senseless image into an 
equality with the " High and Holy One who inhabiteth 
eternity." " If," was their language to those who 
gave them their appointments, ^'' if the alternative he 
attendance at Heathen festivals or resignation of our 
commissions, duty to God requires the latter, and we 
are ready to meet the issued G-overnment being at 
that time wholly indisposed to yield the point, several 
resignations were sent in, among which was that of 
Sir Peregrine Maitland, commander-in-chief of the 
Madras Presidency, who withdrew from an honorable 
post, yielding an income of £15,000 per year, rather 
than give the weight of his influence to a system so 
glaringly unchristian and dishonorable to his Re- 
deemer as this. Such instances of decision and self- 
sacrifice, with crowded petitions from all parts of the 



312 INDIA, 

country, excited inquiry in England, and led to the 
agitation of the subject there, until after long debates 
in the Court of Directors, and pauses, which the Hon. 
Mr. Poynder allowed to be but brief, the resolution was 
passed directing a discontinuance of all such attendance 
and salutes as were made matter of just complaint on 
the part of the Christian officers and soldiers of the In- 
dian army. Long delays occurred in carrying into full 
effect the will of the Directors, especially throughout 
the Madras Presidency. But it has, finally, to a large 
extent been accomplished. If governmental officers 
attend upon public festivals it is but to prevent a dis- 
turbance of public tranquillity. The pilgrim tax is no 
longer, or to but a trifling extent, collected, and the 
Brahmins are left, in most cases, to look after their 
own pecuniary affairs, excepting in cases where the 
government is the appointed and irreieasible guardian. 
The days of ignorance and indifference upon this 
subject have gone by never to return ; and the senti- 
ment has taken a strong hold upon the public mind of 
England, that it is inconsistent and foolish to send to 
India bishops, chaplains, and missionaries — vain to es- 
tablish schools and circulate Bibles — so long as a public 
sanction is given to the system which these means 
were designed to overthrow ; while to send over the 
land pilgrim-hunters, to applaud the fame and sanctity 
of the shrines, and thus stimulate the ignorant multi- 
tude on to the gate of superstition, that the public rev- 
enue may be benefited by the iniquitous traffic, is, in 
the extreme, unchristian, wicked and cruel. All these 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OP MISSIONS IN INDIA, 313 

are signs of the times favorable to the advancement of 
truth and goodness in that benighted and sin-enslaved 
land. 

The past and present character of European resi- 
dents presents a point worthy of attention. The Hon. 
Mr. Shore, an eminent Bengal Judge, in his published 
" Notes on Indian Affairs," uses this strong language : 
" The habits of the English in this country, till within 
the last twenty years, were, as far as religion is con- 
cerned, far below those of the heathen by whom they 
were surrounded. These at least paid attention to 
their own forms and ceremonies, but the English ap- 
pear to have considered themselves at liberty to throw 
aside all consideration upon the subject. They lived 
' without Grod in the world, ' as if there were neither a 
heaven nor a hell." An old merchant said to the mis- 
sionary Schwartz, " Do all Englishmen speak like you ?" 
The reply was, "All Europeans are not true Christians, 
but there are many who believe and practice the faith 
I commend and preach." " You astonish me," said 
the native, " for from what we daily observe, we cannot 
but think the Europeans to be, with few exceptions, 
self-interested, incontinent, proud, full of contempt 
against us Hindoos, and even against their own reli- 
gion." But how gratifying the change which has oc- 
curred and is still in progress. Many Europeans who 
now go to India, either carry their piety with them 
loithout leaving it at the Cape of Good Hope ; or if, 
unhappily, they reach its shores without this needful 
blessing, they secure it through an attendance upon 
14 



314 INDIA. 

the Christian sanctuaries which are scattered through- 
out the country. In the days of Henry Marty n, the 
chaplains of the East India Company were, as a body, 
" blind leaders of the blind," " hirelings who cared not 
for the sheep ;" but now, it were difficult to find in 
Christendom more conscientious and faithful ministers 
of divine truth than are to be met with in India. For 
an officer or soldier of the Indian army, or for a civilian 
of any age and rank to act the Christian, is no longer a 
reproach and disgrace, but rather a passport to respec- 
tability and public favor. The bearing of all this upon 
the advancement of Christianity in that land, is both 
negatively and positively beneficial : negatively^ for 
one argument against our faith is thus wrested from 
the Hindoo priesthood, viz., that it exerts no salutary 
influence upon its disciples ; and positively^ for the 
teachers of the G-ospel now enjoy the sympathy, influ- 
ence, and pecuniary contributions of their fellow-be- 
lievers. Let a few facts illustrate this last point. In 
the year 1844 a leading citizen of Madras offered the 
sum of $25,000 for the establishment of a Christian 
Institution in opposition to the G-overnment University, 
which excluded the Bible, on condition that the public 
would subscribe a like sum. At the head of the list 
was placed the name of the Grovernor of Madras, the 
Marquis of Tweedale, who subscribed $5,000, followed 
by a long array of names from all classes in society, 
until, after the lapse of a few months, the whole sum 
was raised. When the missionaries of the Church of 
Scotland joined their seceding brethren, their friends in 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OP MISSIONS IN INDIA. 315 

the Madras Presidency rallied at once to their aid, and 
have met their entire expenses, with the purchase of 
premises and buildings, to the sum of not less than 
$50,000. The two neat and commodious chapels of 
the American Mission at Madras, were erected without 
any drafts upon the Home Treasury, and mainly 
through the ejEForts of my worthy friend and colleague, 
the Rev. Mr. "Winslow. Some branches of missionary 
operations in India are carried on wholly through con- 
tributions from the foreign residents. Some officers 
expend a large part of their incomes in the publication 
and distribution of tracts, and sustaining schools : 
others give a salary to a Christian catechist, who visits 
their family, reads to the servants, and instructs them 
in the doctrines and duties of Christianity. Without 
wishing to conceal the fact that there is very much of 
irreligion still remaining among the foreigners of India 
— much that is immoral, and vicious, and destructive 
— yet with all that need be subtracted of irreligion and 
vice, there remains much, very much, in the state and 
prospects of Anglo-Indian society there which calls for 
devout gratitude and joyful hope. 

The popular sentiment is evidently, though it may 
be slowly, turning against Hindooism, and in favor 
of Christianity. There are traditions and prophecies 
current among the people, and recorded in the sacred 
books of the land, that the time is coming when the 
Brahminical religion is to be supplanted by one from 
the western world. The tenth avatar of Yishnu, a 
man on a white horse, is supposed by some to typify 



316 INDIA. 

that advent. Be that as it may, the belief in that oc- 
currence is common the country over. Multitudes are 
at the present hour thoroughly convinced that Chris- 
tianity has truth upon its side, and are deterred from 
acting up to their convictions only because they can- 
not make up their minds to bear the sacrifices which 
such a profession must involve. These persons, like 
the " Ruler of the Jews" visit the missionary " by 
night," state their convictions and those of their friends, 
and inquire of him what they shall do. "We know," 
say they, " that we are in the wrong. You are the 
true worshippers, and we trust that our children will 
be of your faith ; but how can we change now ?" One 
of this class, a wealthy Brahmin of Benares, but a few 
years ago called upon a missionary, bringing with him 
his youthful son. " This child," he said, " I now give 
to you, and with him here are rupees 10,000 ($5,000) 
for his support. Take him, bring him up a Christian. 
I am too old to alter my faith, but I desire my child 
to be a follower of Christ." While this is a peculiar 
case in respect to the pecuniary donation, yet instances 
of a like kind are of increasingly frequent occurrence. 
The people are changing their opinions and conduct 
towards their priests. In former times to regard a 
Brahmin with other than feelings of reverential awe, 
was deemed one of the highest of crimes. No matter 
what their character and principles — what the number 
of their lies, adulteries, and other vicious acts — they 
were regarded as the best and holiest of men. Their 
smile was better than the approbation of heaven — their 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OF MISSIONS IN INDIA. 317 

anathema worse than the prospect of hell. But now, 
although the Brahmins still occupy the first place in 
Hindoo society — though to them, as priests, are en- 
trusted duties of great importance and solemnity — they 
by no means enjoy the high honors and special pre- 
rogatives with which they were once favored. Their 
crimes are spoken of with the greatest freedom, and 
their threatenings command but little attention, and 
less alarm. If upon any part of the antique structure 
of Hindooism there be inscribed with special truth 
" Ichabod,'''' it is upon the institution of the Brahmini- 
cal priesthood ! 

The strength or weakness of religious zeal in any 
country may be with much correctness judged of by 
the condition of its edifices for worship. Apply this 
rule to the present condition of India, and it suggests 
much to encourage for Christianity. But few new 
temples are erected, while the old ones are fast going 
to ruins, A coat of paint and whitewash is annually 
allowed to temples of peculiar sanctity and resort, 
while the majority are left to the decaying power of 
time. There is the absence of that spirit of zeal and 
self-sacrifice for their faith which will compel parents 
and guardians to keep their children at home, or expend 
an amount for their education rather than send them 
to a missionary institution, where there is every pros- 
pect of having their faith in Hindooism shaken, and in 
Christianity confirmed. Instances have occurred in 
which the conversion of one or more pupils has led to a 
withdrawal of all the other scholars : but the mission- 



318 INDIA. 

ary has but to wait a little and there will be a general 
return of the absentees. Mass meetings have been 
held at Calcutta and other places, in which speeches 
have been made of a character most denunciatory of the 
Bible and its teachers, and pledges formed of crushing 
the whole system. But most signal failure has al- 
ways been the result. Of the moneys pledged not one 
per cent, is paid, and the resolutions have turned out 
to be " vox et preterea nihil." These things are noticed 
by intelligent Hindoos, and many of them speak out 
publicly and boldly. A letter addressed not long since 
by a native of Calcutta to the " Dhurma Subha," an 
association formed for the protection of Hindooism, 
contained sentences like these : " Oh, holy men, boast 
no more that you are Hindoos ! Do you think that 
your people will remain faithful to the religion of their 
fathers ? Give up all such vain hopes. The Padres 
are wandering in bands through the lanes and streets 
of Calcutta in order to destroy the Hindoo religion, and 
greedy boys, like hungry fishes, are caught by the hook 
of their sorceries. Many youth have given up their 
family caste and religion, and have been initiated into 
the mysteries of the Bible, Last week another boy 
lifted his wing- and flew to the tree of the love of Jesus 
Christ I We cannot find fault with the missionaries, 
for it is the glory of their religion that they have crossed 
seven oceans and thirteen seas* to come into this coun- 
try, and are now expending immense sums in educa- 
tion of the people. Our religion, having no means of 
* A proverbial expression. 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OP MISSIONS IN INDIA. 319 

defending itself, is dying and going to its last home." 
Such a state of things as now described is altogether 
new to India, and indicates a change of feeling most 
encouraging to the heart of those who desire the down- 
fall of that ancient but destructive superstition. 

The existence in India of a Christian church com- 
posed of converted Hindoos is another consideration 
which casts a cheering light upon the cause of truth 
in that land. It is no longer problematical whether 
the natives of Hindostan are susceptible of impression 
by the arguments and motives of the Gospel. The 
possibility of their evangelization is settled by the fact 
that Hindooism and Mohamedanism have yielded con- 
verts to Christianity. The Brahmin and Soodra have 
been cleansed by a holier ablution than by the waters 
of the Granges ; and sitting down at the table of the 
Lord, have eaten of one bread and drank of one cup in 
remembrance of Jesus. One of the north of India 
missionaries states the number of Protestant Christians 
in the Bengal Presidency and northwest provinces to 
exceed twelve thousand. The Secretary of the Church 
Missionary Society (Rev. Mr. Tucker) estimates the 
native Christians of Southern India at fifty thousand. 
It is difficult to gain an estimate altogether correct and 
faultless, and still more difficult to ascertain how large 
the proportion of those who " have a name to live." 
But making all lawful and required deductions, many 
thousands will remain as evidence, not to be gainsaid, 
that the Most High has not disinherited his children 
there, unworthy though they have rendered themselves 



320 INDIA. 

of the Divine favor. Among the natives of India there 
are jewels which will shine brightly and forever in the 
Redeemer's crown of glory. That country is yet to 
form part of that universal empire of which the Lord 
Jesus is Saviour and King. 

To these considerations may be added the interest 
expressed, by all Christian denominations, in the spiri- 
tual prospects of the Hindoos, the comparatively large 
number of missionaries sent among them, the invari- 
able success of their efforts whenever carried on with 
perseverance and zeal, the extensive circulation of 
Bibles and Tracts, and other agencies, which, if space 
allowed, I would gladly illustrate. 

I am not ignorant of the fact, nor would I attempt 
its concealment, that this subject has shades, as well 
as lights. The Hindoo, with his volumes of revealed 
truth, his multitude of propitiatory sacrifices, his fes- 
tival days and deities, numerous and imposing, and 
his millions of fellow-believers, can hardly be made to 
believe that all are deceived, and the whole system a 
falsehood and deception. Then comes in the system 
of caste, with its terrific denunciations against all 
who dare to abjure the national faith, and attach 
themselves to the creed of strangers and foreigners. 
Upon this follows the certainty that persecution, in 
some of its hydra forms, will follow the act of 
baptism. To all which may be added a literature, ex- 
tensive and antiquated, to which the Hindoo triumph- 
antly appeals, with the question, How can we, who 



LIGHTS AND SHADES OP MISSIONS IN INDIA. 321 

live in the iron age of learning, disbelieve and discard 
that creed which in the golden age was deemed divine 
in origin, and supreme in excellence ?" These things 
operate as barriers to the progress of truth, and it is 
on account of these that the present missionary corps 
is so much like a " beleaguering army, that has as 
yet been skirmishing around the walls of a mighty 
fortress, who have just succeeded in taking a few 
stragglers as prisoners, and have begun to open some 
of their batteries, to breach the walls, but who well 
know that many more arduous struggles must be en- 
dured, and that many a hero must fall before the ene- 
my's citadel is taken ! 

But when we consider that the G-overnment of 
India gives the most ample protection to missionaries 
of all denominations, in the peaceable prosecution of 
their holy object — that a disunion is fast being effected 
between governmental patronage and the national re- 
ligion, the latter being left to stand or fall on its own 
merits — that a most extensive and happy change has 
taken place in the character and consequent influence 
of European residents, civil, military, and ecclesiasti- 
cal — that the impression is wide-spread and deep, 
among all intelligent and thoughtful Hindoos, that 
their system cannot endure a close contact with Chris- 
tianity — that the Christian Church has obtained a 
footing in that land, and attached to itself scarcely 
less than 50,000 nominal disciples — that the whole 
array of evangelizing agencies, as Schools, the Press, 
Bibles and Tract Circulation, and Preaching, in its 
14* 



322 INDIA. 

many forms, is in operation — that the whole of Chris- 
tendom, without regard to creed or nation, is mani- 
festing a deep and practical interest in the welfare of 
the Hindoos, and sending thither teachers of their 
faith — when these facts come before us, they tend to 
dissipate the dark clouds of discouragement and de- 
pression. " The walls of Jerusalem, compactly built 
together, did not fall at once, under the battering-rams 
of the Romans. Blow succeeded blow, before any im- 
portant impression was made. But at length the huge 
stones were loosed and shaken, and, in spite of the 
desperate courage and skill of the defenders, the inner 
wall was reached ; it toppled to its foundation, and a 
breach was opened into the heart of the city." So 
with Hindooism — it has been besieged, and an under- 
mining process is going on, which, with the Divine 
blessing, will go on, until it shall be known but on 
the pages of history. While, therefore, it cannot be 
denied that the " night" of error and superstition still 
broods over that land, we may say, without the aid of 
prophetic vision, " The morning Cometh^ 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 

The interest felt by Christendom in India — St. Thomas — Roman Ca- 
tholic Missions — Society for Propagating the Gospel — Danish Mis- 
sionary Society — English Baptist Missionary Society — London Mis- 
sionary Society — Scottish Missionary Society — Church Missionary 
Society — Free Church of Scotland Missions — American Board of Com- 
missioners for Foreign Missions — American Baptist Missionary Society 
— Presbyterian Foreign Missionary Society — Free Will Baptist Mis- 
sions — Evangelical Lutheran Missions — Concluding Remarks. 

The interest felt by the whole of Christendom in 
the spiritual position and prospects of the Hindoos, is a 
fact full of hope to that benighted and unhappy people, 
A nation that has, from any cause, lost the earnest 
sympathy of the Christian Church, and is debarred 
wholly or in part from a place in her prayers and 
evangelizing endeavors, is in a very deplorable and hap- 
less state. Such is not the case with India. I know 
of no part of the vast Christian community which is 
not engaged directly and earnestly in bettering the 
condition of that idolatrous country. The late Bishop 
Heber favored the opinion that St. Thomas preached 
the Gospel in India, and was martyred at a place 



824 INDIA. 

named Meilapoor, near the city of Madras, In that 
village is a small rocky knoll with a Roman Catholic 
church upon it, which, in honor of this apostle and 
early martyr, is called St. Thorn 6. As early as the 
fourteenth century, the Church of Rome sent forth her 
emissaries to that land ; and with such zeal and ear- 
nestness were their efforts prosecuted under Robert de 
Nobili, Francis Xavier, with other Ecclesiastics, Car- 
melites, Capuchins, Augustinians and Jesuits, that in 
connection with that communion alone are not less 
than six hundred thousand natives. Most of these are 
the descendants of families converted, centuries back, 
to the creed of Rome, the conversions from heathenism 
to that faith being at the present time very few. 

I would request the reader's attention, during the 
remainder of this chapter, to a rapid view of Protestant 
Missions as they have been and still are conducted 
in that country. The various organizations will be 
named in the order of their relative age. 

I. 

The " Society for the propagation of the Gospel 
IN foreign parts," was chartered by King "William III., 
June 16, 1701. Its India stations are Vepery, (an 
environ of Madras,) Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Yellore, 
Cuddalore and Tinnevelly, with Bishop's College at 
Calcutta. 

II. 
The " Danish Missionary Society," was established 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 325 

in 1705, by Frederick IV. of Denmark, and had 
for its primary object to make known the Gospel of 
Christ among the Hindoos on the Cororaandel coast. 
The missionaries who have enjoyed the patronage of 
this Society have been men eminent for talents and 
piety. The venerable names of Ziegenbalg, Plutscho, 
Grundler, Schubse, Schwartz, Gericke, Jonicke, Koh- 
loff, Rottler, Cammaeren and others, their colleagues, 
will be honored so long as faith, zeal, and self-sacrifice 
are esteemed among men. 

III. 

The *' English Baptist Missionary Society" was 
the product of a volume from the pen of Rev. Andrew 
Fuller, entitled " The Gospel of Christ worthy of all 
acceptation,''^ and a discourse from Mr. (afterwards Dr.) 
Carey, from Isaiah, liv. 2, 3, and having as its topic 
this important sentiment, " Expect great things from 
God ; attempt great things for God," On the 2d of 
October, 1792, in the humble village of Kittering, this 
noble institution of Christian benevolence had its be- 
ginning in a series of resolutions adopted by Ryland, 
Fuller, SutclifF, Pearce, and men of kindred aims and 
hopes. On the 13th of June, of the same year, Revds. 
John Thomas and William Carey, sailed for the East 
Indies. My readers are too familiar with the names 
of Carey, Marshman, "Ward, Yates, Pearce, their place 
of abode — the world-renowned Serampore — and their 
great success in Bible translations, to require any 
farther details in regard to their operations. Besides 



326 INDIA. 

Serampore this Society have stations at Calcutta, 
Cutwa, Digah, and Monghyr, at each of which is a 
Christian church, with schools, and systematic Bible 
and Tract distribution. 

IV. 

The " London Missionary Society" was established 
in 1795, and consisted, at its formation, of Christians 
of several denominations, though now conducted al- 
most entirely on the plan of discipline adopted by the 
body of independent Dissenters. This most useful 
organization had its origin in the zeal enkindled with- 
in the heart of Dr. Bogue, Rev. Mr. Steven, and a few 
others, by letters received from Carey and Thomas — a 
remarkable instance of the diffusive benefit of Chris- 
tian benevolence. In addition to successful establish- 
ments in the South Sea Islands and South Africa, this 
Society has stations at Benares, Burhampore, Chin- 
surah, Kidderpore, Surat, Madras, Vizagapatam, Cud- 
dapah, Chittoor, Bolgaum, Bellary, Bungalore, and 
Travancore. From the year 1798, when the Rev. 
Mr. Forsyth was sent to Calcutta, to the present hour, 
this Institution has been doing much for the natives 
and Eurasians of India. 

V. 

The " Scottish Missionary Society" was formed at 
Edinburgh in February, 1796, and though limited in 
its sphere of operations has had a useful career. Its 
missions in the East Indies are at Bankote, sixty miles 
south from Bombay, Sevendroog and Bombay. 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA, 327 

VI. 

In the year 1801 was instituted the " Church Mis- 
sionary Society," of a kindred spirit and aim. 
with that of the London Society ; but conducted solely 
on the principles of the Church of England. It is un- 
derstood to be the organ of the Low Church as the 
Gospel Propagation Society is of the High Church 
party of that religious denomination. In addition to 
Africa and Australia, this Society has many devoted 
and successful agents in Northern India, at Burdwan, 
Buxar, Benares, Chunar, Delhi, Agra, Surruckpore, 
and Meerut ; and in Southern India at Madras, Tinne- 
velly, and Travancore. The Rev. Mr. Rhenius, one 
of the most eminent of India missionaries, the transla- 
tor of the New Testament Scriptures, author of various 
tracts and Christian treatises, was long connected with 
this Society. 

VII. 

When the disruption took place in the Established 
Church of Scotland, the seceders, calling themselves 
the " Free Church of Scotland," attracted to them- 
selves the entire corps of Scottish missionaries in 
India. Among them was the Rev. Dr. Duff of Calcutta, 
the Rev. Dr. Wilson of Bombay, and the less eminent, 
though not less zealous and indefatigable and success- 
ful servants of G-od, the Rev. Messrs. Anderson, 
Braidwood, and Johnson of Madras. Instruction of 
the young rather than preaching to adults has charac- 
terized the efforts of these missionaries, and with their 



328 INDIA. 

zeal and unwearied self-devotion they cannot fail to 
succeed. 

VIIT. 
To these may be added the " German Missionary So- 
ciety," having stations in the southern districts and 
on the "western coast, with others of little note, though 
useful, in their way. 

The American Churches are represented in India by 
five societies, of which the first in age is that of the 
" American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
Missions." This board met for the first time at Far- 
mington, Conn., September 5th, 1810, The present 
centre of its extensive operations is Boston, Mass., its 
presiding officer Hon. Theodore Frelinghujsen, LL.D., 
its secretaries Rufus Anderson, D.D., Rev, Selah B. 
Treat, and Swan L. Pomroy, D.D., assisted by a Pru- 
dential Committee. The large place which India has 
has held in the evangelistic efforts of this Society 
will appear from the following table, which contains 
the names of all persons, ministerial, lay, and assistants, 
who have been sent under its direction to the Mahrattas, 
in and around Bombay, to Jaffna in Northern Ceylon, 
to Madura and Madras on the continent. 

1812. 

Reverend Samuel, and Mrs. Harriet A. Newell, Bmnbay. 
« " " Nott, « 

" Gordon Hall, « 

1815. 
Reverend Horatio, and Mrs. R. F. Bardwe'i, Bmnbay. 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 



329 



Reverend Daniel, and Mrs. Susan Poor, . Ceylon. 
" James, " Sarah Richards, " 

" Benjamin C. " Sarah M. Meigs, " 

« Edward Warren, " 

1817. 

Reverend John, and Mrs. Elizabeth Nichols, Bombay. 

" Allen, " Mary L. Graves, " 

Miss Philomela Thurston, " 

1819. 

Reverend Miron, and Mrs. Harriet L. Winslow, Ceylon. 
" Levi, " Mary C. Spaulding, " 

« Henry, " Lydia N. Woodvi^ard, " 

" John (M.D.) , " Harriet W. Scudder, « 

1820. 
Mr. James Garret, Ceylon, 

1823. 
Reverend Edmund, and Mrs. C. E. Frost, Bombay. 

1827. 

Reverend David 0., and Mrs. M. W. Allen, Bombay. 

" Cyrus, " Miss A. F. Stone, " 

Miss Cynthia Farrar, " 

1830. 

Reverend William, and Mrs. Elizabeth H. Hervey, Bombay. 
'" William, " Nancy W. Ramsey, " 

« Hollis, " C. H. Read, " 

1832. 

Reverend George W., and Mrs. F. W. Boggs. Bombay. 

Mr. William C, " Mary L. Sampson, " 

1833. 

Reverend George H., and Mrs. Mary R. Apthorp, Ceylon. 
" Henry R., " Nancy L. Hoisington, " 

" Samuel, " Elizabeth C. Hutchings, " 



330 



INDIA. 



Reverend William, and Mrs. Lucy B. Todd, . 
" Eastman S., " Lucy B. Miner, 
Nathan (M.D.), " Harriet W. Ward, 

Reverend James R., " Margaret E. Eckard, 



Ceylon. 



1834. 

Reverend Sendol B., and Mrs. Maria L. Munger, 
" Alanson C, " Frances A. Hall, 
Mr. Amos A., " A. W. Abbott, 

" George W., « E. B. Hubbard, 

Miss Orpah Graves, 
« Abigail H. Kimball, 



Bombay. 

Ceylon. 

Bombay. 



1835. 

Reverend John M. S., and Mrs. Harriet J. Perry, Ceylon. 
" John J., " Mary H. Lawrence, " 

" Robert O., " Mary B. P wight, " 

Mrs. Catherine W. Winslow, Madras. 

1837. 

Reverend Henry, and Mrs. C. H. Cherry, Madura. 
" Edward, " E. K. Cope, « 

" Nathaniel L., " Julia A. J. Crane, " 

" Clarendon F., " S. B. Muzzy, « 

" William, " E. F. Tracy, « 

" Ferd. DeW. " Jane Ward, " 

And afterwards at Madras. 

John (M.D.) , and Mrs. Mary S. Steele, Madura. 

And Miss Steele, since 1840, at Jaffna. 



1839. 



.Reverend Ebenezer, and Mrs. Nancy G. Burgess, Bombay. 



" Ozro, 


u 


Jane H. French, 


(C 


" Robert W., 


u 


Hannah D. Hume, 


(( 


Mr. Phineas R., 


a 


Abigail I\L Hunt, 


Madras. 


Miss Eliza Agnew, 






Ceylon. 


" Sarah F. Brown, 






(C 


" Jane E. Lathrop, 






<( 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 



331 



1841. 

Reverend Samuel G., and Mrs. Anna C. Whittlesey, Ceylon. 
" Robert, " Martha E. Wyman, " 
«' J. C, " Mary S. Smith, « 



1844. 

Reverend Horace S., and Mrs. Martha E. Taylor, 
" Henry M., " Fanny L. Scudder, 

1846. 



Madura. 
Madras. 



Reverend James, and Mrs. Elizabeth C. Herrick, Madura. 



" Edward, 

" John, 

« George W., 

" A. H.. 

" Wm. W. 

" Royal G., 

« Samuel G., 

« A. H., 

« John E., 

" George, 

« Wm. W. 

" Eurotas P. Hastings, 
Dr. Samuel F. Green, 



Nancy A, Webb, 
Jane B. Rendall, 
Rebecca N. M'Millan, 
Elizabeth S. Fletcher, 
Susan R. Howland, 
Eliza J. Wilder, 
Abby W. Fairbank, 
Martha R. Hazen, 
Charlotte M. Chandler, 
Ann J. Ford, 
Catherine E. Scudder, 



Jlhmednugger. 



Madura 



Ceylon. 



1847. 

Reverend George Bowen, 

" William, and Mrs. Lucy M. Wood, 

1848. 

Reverend John W., and Mrs. Harriet L. Dallas, 
Dr. Charles S., " Henrietta M. Shelton, 

Reverend Joseph T., " Elizabeth A. Noyes, 

" Cyrus T., " Susan L. Mills. " 

" Thomas S., " Martha Burwell, « 

Of these one hundred and fifty persons, forty are 
deceased, eighty-five still connected with the mission, 



Bombay. 



Madras. 
Madura. 
Ceylon. 



332 INDIA. 

while the rest are in their native country, invalided, or 
as pastors. Of the company leaving in 1815, the Rev. 
Messrs. Meigs and Poor are still toiling on with zeal and 
hopefulness. Of the reinforcement sent in 1819, Rev. 
Messrs. Winslow and Scudder have resided at Madras, 
since 1835, being the honored founders of the Ameri- 
can Madras Mission ; and Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Spaulding 
still have the efficient and successful charge of tho 
Female Boarding School at Oodooville, Jaflha, assisted 
by Miss Agnew. By a singular concurrence of re- 
verse events, of the twenty-four who went to India 
during the years 1830, '32 and '33, but one person is 
on the field — Mr. Miner, at Jaffna. 

Would the reader make himself more fully ac- 
quainted with the past history and present condition 
of the various missionary stations of this Board in 
India, he will do well to read, among other works, 
The Christian Brahtnin, by Rev. Hollis Read, and 
published in 1836, a work replete with much informa- 
tion, both respecting the interesting convert Babajee, 
and the Hindoos generally ; " Journal of a Mission- 
ary Tour in India, by Rev. Wm. Ramsay, published 
in the same year, an admirable description of mission- 
ary itineracy; ^^ Memoirs of Mrs. Winslow,''^ which 
none of my readers ought to omit reading ; " Ten 
Years in Ceylon and Southern India, containing 
much respecting the theory of Hindooism not to be 
found in any other American work ; " Conquest of 
India by the Church, by Rev. S. B. Munger, which, 
with the admirable appeals from the Rev. D. Scudder, 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 333 

cannot be read without awakening emotions of detes- 
tation for that false faith, pity for its enslaved votaries, 
and an earnest desire that the Truth may set them 
free. 

The " American Baptist Board op Foreign Mis- 
sions " was called into existence by an important 
change which took place in the theological views of 
the Rev. Messrs. Judson and Rice, during their voyage 
to India, as Missionaries of the American Board. The 
organization took place at Philadelphia, on the 18th 
of May, 1814. Its present centre is Boston, its Presi- 
dent the Hon. George N. Briggs, with Solomon Peck, 
D.D., and Rev. Edward Bright, as Secretaries. 

Until the year 1835, the operations of this Board 
were restricted to the Burmese and Chinese empires — 
but in that year, the Rev. S. S. and Mrs. Day were sent 
on a mission to the natives of Southern India, speak- 
ing the Teloogoo language. After residing for a time 
at Madras, they removed to Nelloor, a large sea-board 
town, about a hundred miles north from the metropolis. 
In 1840 they were joined by the Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Yan 
Hus«n ; and they labored patiently, and with some 
degree of encouragement until 1845, when ill health 
compelled Mr. Van H. to relinquish his labors, and re- 
turn to America, where he now is, a hopeless invalid. 
Mr. Day soon followed, but his health being sufficient- 
ly restored, he reembarked in 1848, accompanied by 
Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Jewett, — and all are now 'applying 
themselves with unwearied diligence and zeal, to the 



334 



INDIA, 



people of that idolatrous town. May G-od bless them 
more and more. 

The " Board of FoREroN Missions of the Presby- 
terian Church in the United States," was instituted 
June 7th, 1837, having been preceded by the " West- 
ern Foreign Missionary Society^''- which held its first 
annual meeting in the city of Pittsburg, May 9th, 
1833. The present locality of the board is New York 
city, its President Archibald Alexander, D.D., its Se- 
cretaries, Walter Lowrie, Esq., and Rev. John C. 
Lowrie, and its missionaries, past and present, in 
India are as follows : 



1833. 

Reverend John C, and Mrs. Lowrie, Lodiana. 

" William, " Reed, " 

This company have all deceased except Mr. Lowrie, who is associated 

with his honored father in the Secretaryship of the Society. 



1834. 
Reverend James, and Mrs. Wilson, 
" John, " Newton. 

Miss Jidia A. Davis (since Mrs. Goadby) , 

1835. 
Reverend James, and Mrs. M'Ewan, 
" James R., " Campbell, 
" Jesse M., " Jamieson, 
» William S., " Rogers, 
« Joseph, " Porter, 

1836, 
Reverend H., and Mrs. Morrison, 

" Henry R.," Wilson, 
Mr. James, and Mrs. Craig, 
Mr. Rees, " Morris, 

Reverend Joseph, " Caldwell, 



Agra. 

Lahore. 

Orissa. 



AllahabM. 
Saharunpoor. 
Amballa. 
Lodiana. 



Atnballa. 

Futtehgurh. 

Saharunpoor, 

Lodiana. 

Saharunpoor 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 



335 



1838. 

Reverend Joseph, and Mrs. Warren, 
" John E., " Freeman, 
" James L. " Scott, 



Allahabad. 



1840. 

Keverend John C, and Mrs. Rankin, 
" William H. « M'AuIey, 
" Joseph, " Owen, 

Miss Jane Vanderveer, 



Jlgra. 

Fwrukhabad. 

Allahabad. 



1841. 

Reverend John, and Mrs. Wray, 
" Levi, " Janvier, 



Allaliabful. 
liOdiana, 



1842. 



Willis Green M.D., 



Lodiana. 



1843. 
Reverend John J., and Mrs. Walsh, 



Mynpirk. 



1846. 

Reverend Adolph, and Mrs. Randolph, 
" David " Irving, 

" Augustus H. Seeley, 
• " Robert M. Munnis, 



Lodiana. 
Futtehgurh. 
Furrukhabad. 
Allahabad. 



1847. 

Reverend A. Alexander, and Mrs. Hodge, Allahabad. 

" Charles W. Forman, Lalwre. 



1848. 

Reverend Julius F. Ullman, 

" John S., and Mrs. Woodside, 



Futtehgurh. 
Saharunpoor, 





1850. 


irere: 


ad Horatio W., and Mrs. Shaw, 


<( 


Lawrence G., " Hay, 


(1 


Robert S., " Fullerton. 


(( 


D. Elliot, " Campbell, 


({ 


James H. Orbison, 



336 INDIA. 



Allahabad. 

a 

Futtehgurh. 

Furrnkhabad. 

Lodiana. 

These stations it will be observed, are all in the ex- 
treme North, near the base of the Himalayah Moun- 
tains, and reached by the way of Calcutta and the 
Ganges. For an interesting account of the rise and 
progress of that efficient mission, with a description of 
the vicissitudes and perils attending a trip up the 
sacred stream, the reader is referred to a volume from 
the pen of my worthy friend the Rev. Mr. Lowrie, the 
pioneer to that country, and at present an executive 
officer in the Society, with which he has been connect- 
ed since its foundation. 

The " Free Will Baptist Foreign Missionary So- 
ciety" was organized in the year 1833, the zeal which 
called it into being being enkindled by the " Macedo- 
nian call" of the Rev. Mr. Sutton, a missionary among 
the people of Orissa in South Bengal. Mr. S. visited 
this country, and upon his return to India in the year 
1835, was accompanied by the Rev. Messrs. Noyes and 
Phillips, with their wives. In the year 1839, Mr. 
Otis R. and Miss Batchelder, and Miss Hannah W. 
Cummings, were sent to that interesting but needy 
field. 

The Evangelical Lutherans have commenced mis- 
sionary operations at G-untoor, having as their efficient 



CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA. 337 

and devoted agents the Rev. Messrs. Hyer and Grunn 
and Mrs. Grunn. Much encouragement has attended 
their efforts thus far. 

With this large array of means in operation, the 
reader is expecting to hear of results proportionally 
abundant and gratifying. In forming a judgment 
upon this subject we must not overlook the obstacles 
with which the Christian missionary has to contend in 
the language, the system of caste, a false philosophy, 
an antiquated and venerated theology, together with 
the dense population, so far exceeding in proportionate 
numbers the few who are sent for their instruction. 
The whole missionary corps of India, able-bodied and 
ripe for action, cannot exceed one hundred and fifty at 
the farthest — the population is about one hundred and 
fifty millions^ and speaking twenty different lan- 
guages. When I tell my reader that the whole num- 
ber of converts to Christianity, excluding the members 
of the Church of Rome, cannot exceed ten thousand, 
let him not be surprised and disheartened, but rather 
be thankful that against such fearful odds such re- 
sults have been gained. England requires two hun- 
dred thousand well-disciplined troops to subjugate to 
her dominion the flesh and blood of India. And now, 
because some few scores of soldiers of the cross have 
not taken from Satan and all his principalities and 
powers, in these his high places of abomination and 
sin, this his most loyal province, and are not now with 
the millions of its redeemed people, shouting high and 



338 INDIA, 

jubilant songs" of conquest, there are, forsooth, those 
who begin to wonder at the protraction of the fight; 
and to despond of conquest. Reader, Jet me entreat 
you not to be of that number, India belongs to truth 
and goodness, though for a time in the power of error 
and sin ; and the time is coming when the Almighty 
will assert His rights and reclaim His dominion. 
In His name, and by His direction, measures are in 
progress which tend to this blessed consummation. 
Far be it from the writer's wish that one who pe- 
ruses his pages close his mind to facts however dis- 
couraging and sad ; but let him look also at the en- 
couragements — let him read the previous list and see 
if he does not find the name of a son, daughter, brother, 
sister, or other beloved friend, from whose tombstone 
there comes an appeal that India be cared for — with 
faith, and prayer, and self-sacrifice. If, after all this, 
any are disposed still to despond, let them remember 
Calvary, and say: "From the cross came the crown, 
out of the grave came heaven, through the gibbet's 
shame came the Church's glory." As it was in Judea, 
so is it in India. Though there be night the " morn- 
ing Cometh." This must be our motto, to warm our 
zeal and nerve our arm, to cheer our despondency and 
strengthen our faith — " faint yet pursuing." 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

GLOSSARY: 

OR, VOCABULARY OF WORDS AND TERMS IN COMMON USE BY 
WRITERS ON INDIA, ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. 

A. 

V 

Adawlet — A court of justice, civil or criminal. 

Ameer — A nobleman, a prince. 

Ameen — A guardian, arbitrator. 

Amildar — A collector, or ruler. 

Anna — A silver coin about three cents in value. 

Annicut — A dam. 

Avatar — An incarnation. 

AcBAR — A native newspaper. 

Aumeer — A collector of revenue. 

Ayah — A nurse-maid. 

B. 

Baboo — Title of a Hindoo gentleman. 

Bagee — Name of a grain. 

Bang — Hemp, an intoxicating mixture made from hemp. 

Bangy — A stick carried across the shoulders with slings 

at both ends for burdens, heavy mail bag. 
Banyan — A shopkeeper. 
Batta — Allowance to troops in the field. 
Bazar — Market, grocery store. 
Beastie — One who carries water in a skin. 



340 INDIA, 

Beebee — Lady. 

Begum — A lady of rank, a princess. 

Brinjarry — Carriers of rice. 

Bungalow — A thatched cottage. 

Bandy — A gig or cart, (usually drawn by oxen.j 

Bangle — A bracelet. 

Begah — Land measure. 

BooLEE — A large well. 

BoosA — Camel's food. 

BuDGEROw — A large cabined boat used on the Ganges. 

BuNDUR — A harbor. 



C. 

Carcoon — The register of the collections under a Zimindar. 

Catamaran — A water craft used on the Bay of Bengal. 

Cawny — A ground measure equal to 1 1-4 acres. 

Cazee — A Mohamedan judge. 

Chokedar — A watchman. 

Choultry — A building for public purposes. 

Chunam — Lime, whitewash. 

Circar — A district, a superintendent. 

Compound — An enclosure, a front yard. 

CoNicopiLLY — An accountant. 

CooLY — A laborer, porter, hire. 

Coss — A measure, averaging two miles. 

Crore — Ten millions. 

CuMBLY — A blanket. 

Cutchery — A town hall, a court. 

CuTWAL — The chief officer of the police in a town. 

Chattah — Umbrella. 

Chowny — A whisp for driving off flies. 



D. 

Dacoit — An attack made by robbers. 

Dawk — Post for letters or bearers. 

Dewan— Minister, steward. 

Dirzee — The household tailor. 

DoAB — A tract of country between two rivers. 

Do BASH — An interpreter. 



GLOSSARY. 341 

Dooly — A light description of palankeen made of canvas. 
Dandee — A boatman, (applied to those on the Ganges.) 
DuFFADAR — Officer, equivalent to lieutenant. 
Durbar — A court where a levee is held. 
DuRMAN — A gate keeper. 

F. 

Fakeer — A Mohamedan devotee, literally a heggar. 
FouJDAR — The military governor of a town or district. 



G. 

GrANJA — Hemp, an intoxicating mixture used for drinking and 

smoking. 
Ghee — Clarified butter. 

Ghurny — An Indian hour, twenty-four minutes. 
GoBRUN — The porch tower of a pagoda, a gate. 
GoDOWN — Warehouse, storeroom. 
GoM ASTER — Agent. 
GooRoo — Spiritual guide. 
Ghaut — A landing place, a pass of a mountain, or a range 

of hills. 
Gram — A kind of grain. 
Griffin — Descriptive title of a foreigner during his first year 

in India. 



H. 

Hackery — A native bullock carriage. 
Harem — A woman's apartments. 
Havildar — Equivalent to sergeant. 
Hircarrah — A courier, a messenger. 
Hooka — A pipe. 
Howdah — A seat on an elephant. 



J. 

Jaghire — Land granted in the way of pension. 

Jemidar — An officer in the army. 

Jungle' — A thicket, land covered with brushwood. 



342 INDIA. 

K. 

Khan — A prince or lord. 
Khas — A noble, private. 
Khelant — A robe of honor. 
KisT — A tax. 
Khitmutgar — A footman. 



L. 

Lack — A hundred thousand. 
Lascar — A native porter. 

LuBBiE — A descendant of Arab settlers on the Coromandel 
Coast. 



Mamoul — Custom, usage. 

Mantra — A charm, a spell. 

Maitnd — Name of a weight, about 25 lbs. 

Maher-rajah — Grreat, king. 

MoFUTSsiL — The country in opposition to tovra. 

Moollah; — A learned man, answering to the word doctor. 

MuNSY — A judge. 

MusNUD — A throne. 



Nabob — A governor of a district, deputy. 

Naick — A chief. 

Nizam — Administrator, governor. 

Nullah — A streamlet, watercourse. 

NuNJAH — Dry cultivation. 

NuzzEE — A gift. 



P. 

Paddy — Rice in the husk. 

Pagoda — A Hindoo idol temple, also name of a coin. 

Palankeen — ^A litter or sedan. 



GLOSSARY. 343 

Parcherry — A pariah village. 

Peon — A footman, a constable. 

Pariah — A stranger, an outcast. 

Pergunnah — A subdivision of a Zulla. 

Parwanal — A pass, permit, or warrant. 

Peishwa — A leader, foreman. 

Pice — A small copper coin, one-twelfth part of an arman. 

Pettah — A native town near a fort 

Phansegar — A thug, (which see.) 

PoLARE — The headman of a village. 

PoojAH — Worship. 

PuccA — Brick. 

Punka — A large fan suspended from the ceiling. 

PuRANA — Indian mythological poem. 

Pundit — Learned man, title of a Brahmin lawyer. 



Qui-Hi — ^Who waits } (Applied to Calcuttians.) 



R. 

Rajah — Hindoo prince or king. 

Ramazun — An epic poem describing the exploits of Rama. 

Ranee — Hindoo princess or queen. 

Rao — A prince. 

Rupee — A silver coin whose value is about fifty cents. 

Ryot — A tenant (of land,) subject. 

Butt — A car, chariot. 



8. 

Sahib — Master, sir, lord. 

Sanyassy — A Hindoo devotee. 

Seer — A weight or measure equal to two lbs. 

Sepoy — A native soldier. 

Serishtadar — Title of a revenue officer. 

Shastras — Hindoo sacred books and laws. 

Shastry — An expounder of Hindoo law. 

Shroff — A money changer, banker. 



344 INDIA. 

Sirdar — A chief commander. 

SuBADAR — Grovei-nor of a proviuce, officer of highest rank 

in the native army. 
SuDDER — Chief, Supreme. 
Strang — Captain, overseer. 
SooDRA — Fourth of the Hindoo castes. 
SuwARREE — Retinue. 

T. 

Tasildar — A collector, tax gatherer. 

Talook — A manor, division of land. 

Tanadar — A station man, police officer. 

Tank — An artificial pond, or small lake. 

Tanna — A watchhouse. 

Tappal — A post, for letters or bearers. 

Thakoor — A lord, chief. 

Thug — A robber, cheat, applied in the western provinces to 

stragglers on the highway. 
Tattee — A mat made of cuscos grass. 
TiNDAL — A tent pitcher, captain of a coast vessel. 
Tope — A clump of trees. 
ToNJON — A chaise-like palanquin. 
Tusseldar — A taxman. 

V, 

Vakeel — An ambassador, agent, lawyer. 
Vizier — A minister of state. 
Vedas — Hindoo scriptures. 

Y. 

Yogi — Religious mendicants- 



Z. 



Zenindar — A landholder. 
ZiLLAH — A district. 
Zemindary — A province. 



FINIS. 



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